Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (Wildlife Conservation Plan for Seabirds) Instrument 2022
20Wildlife Conservation Plan for Seabirds
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Most extreme climatic events are beyond our immediate control, but it is important to monitor their effects on seabirds, particularly in the long term, in order to understand the background of natural influences against which to judge anthropogenic influences (Ross et al. 1996). The implications of extreme climatic events for Australian and Southern Hemisphere seabirds have been described by Chambers et al. (2011, 2013, 2014) and by Rodriguez et al. (2019) for petrels and shearwaters.
Climate change is a threat that impacts many marine organisms including seabirds. The 'Loss of climatic habitat caused by anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases' has been declared a Key Threatening Process under the EPBC Act. The threat is described as reductions in the bioclimatic range within which a species or ecological community exists due to emissions induced by human activities of greenhouse gases. The listing of this threat recognises that it is occurring at a continental scale. Components of the process include: temperature rise; changes in rainfall patterns; changes to the El Niño Southern Oscillation; and sea level rise. Consequences to seabirds could include negative impacts from an increase in extreme weather events, reduced or changed prey abundance and distribution, and decrease in nesting habitat.
Changes to marine ecosystems have been linked to strengthening warm currents and ocean warming (Ridgway 2007; Steinacher et al. 2010; Wu et al. 2012). In Australia, marine productivity has decreased as a result of the strengthening East Australian Current and warming waters (Ridgway 2007, Wu et al. 2012) which is likely to affect seabirds (e.g. foraging impacts and distribution changes (Carroll et al. 2016; Gorta et al. 2019)). For example, high seabird diversity in the Tasman Sea is subject to increasing rates of ocean warming and decreases in productivity which is likely to adversely impact species in that region (Mott and Clarke 2018).
Several seabird species have been identified as being at high risk from exposure to climate change and sensitive to climate change (Garnett and Franklin 2014). These species include: White-bellied Storm-petrel (Tasman Sea), Wedge-tailed Shearwater, Little Shearwater (Tasman Sea), Soft-plumaged Petrel, White-necked Petrel, Kermadec Petrel and Masked Booby (Tasman Sea). Many other seabirds listed by Garnett and Franklin (2014) are sensitive to climate change and their exposure to climate change varies. Understanding the impacts of climate change on these species, and the management response, will vary. The impact of climate change on Australian’s seabirds requires further research that will inform actions that inform adaptation and resilience.
Projected sea level rises are likely to adversely affect beach-nesting seabirds such as terns and noddies in the short term, followed by ground nesting seabirds like gulls, boobies and burrowing species such as penguins, shearwaters and petrels on low lying coastal areas, islands and cays.
A reduction in the emissions of greenhouse gases requires an internationally coordinated effort. Australia is a signatory to relevant international agreements, and has made a commitment to limit, and reduce, greenhouse gas emissions. In addition, the states and territories are pursuing additional opportunities to abate greenhouse gas emissions in a cost-effective and environmentally sensitive manner.
Wildlife Conservation Plan for Seabirds 21
El Niño Southern Oscillation
Long-term climatic cycles caused by El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events can have profound effects on seabird colonies and breeding success (Schreiber and Burger 2002; Surman and Nicholson 2009; Chambers et al. 2013). For example, northward irruption of Southern Ocean species and subsequent mortalities are a feature of strong ENSO events. Oceanographic parameters play an important role in determining the distribution of many pelagic seabird species. The position of the front of the East Australian Current, the Subantarctic Convergence and the Leeuwin Current are all major cyclical features affecting marine productivity and seabird distributions in Australia.
Generally, effects of ENSO events on seabirds are seen first in the central Pacific where they develop and are the most severe, but parallel oceanographic and atmospheric changes occur in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans (Schreiber and Burger 2002). For example, during ENSO events, when the flow of the Leeuwin Current flow is weaker and the Southern Oscillation Index is low, reproductive effort and output was severely reduced for Lesser Noddy (Anous tenuirostris) and Common Noddy (A. stolidus) breeding at the Houtman Abrolhos, Western Australia (Surman and Nicholson 2009). The conditions appeared to result in low prey availability, which delayed the commencement of seabird breeding by up to two months and caused breeding failures (Surman and Nicholson 2009).
La Niña events can also impact seabirds. Cannell et al. (2012) observed negative impacts on breeding success and fledging mass of Little Penguin (Eudyptula minor) in Western Australia.
Storms and cyclones
Small populations such as those of White-tailed Tropicbird (Phaethon lepturus), Kermadec Petrel (Pterodroma neglecta) and Little Tern (Sternula albifrons) are vulnerable to stochastic events such as storms and cyclones. Storms and cyclones have the potential to have serious effects on the arrival points, nesting substrate, vegetation and wildlife on remote seabird breeding islands, in addition to impacting seabirds directly at sea. Such natural factors can place additional pressures on seabird populations already adversely affected by anthropogenic influences. However, stochastic events such as storms and cyclones are beyond the control of management authorities and have not been addressed for the species in this Plan.
Geological processes
Volcanism
Active volcanoes generally occur close to the major tectonic plate boundaries. They are rare in Australia because there are no plate boundaries on this continent. However, there are two active volcanoes located 4,000 kilometres south west of Perth in the Australian Antarctic Territory on Heard Island and the nearby McDonald Islands.
Mawson Peak, on Heard Island has erupted several times in the last decade and remains active. The volcano on McDonald Island, after being dormant for 75,000 years, became active in 1992 and has erupted several times since, the most recent in 2005. It is estimated that volcanic activity displaced more than 1 million pairs of Macaroni Penguins (Eudyptes chrysolophus) on McDonald Island after the 1992 eruptions, though satellite images show unidentified penguins that may be recolonising the area (Crossin et al. 2013).
Section 20 - Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (Wildlife Conservation Plan for Seabirds) Instrument 2022 - Wildlife Conservation Plan for Seabirds | Zoe