Part 2C – Additional Management Provisions
Sections 17 to 23
These sections talk about: delegation of powers of the Director; the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 and other relevant legislation; international agreements which apply to or affect Christmas Island or the operation of the Park such as the Japan-Australia Migratory Bird Agreement (JAMBA) and the China-Australia Migratory Bird Agreement (CAMBA); significant leases outside the Park; and, rainforest protection.
SUMMARY IN BAHASA MALAY
to be found in Associated Documents
SUMMARY IN MANDARIN
to be found in Associated Documents
A DESCRIPTION OF
CHRISTMAS ISLAND
AND THE NATIONAL PARK
PART 1 - A DESCRIPTION OF CHRISTMAS ISLAND
AND THE NATIONAL PARK
CONTENTS
-
LOCATION AND ACCESS
-
HISTORY OF CHRISTMAS ISLAND..........................................
-
HISTORY OF THE NATIONAL PARK
-
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
4.1 Climate...............................................................
4.2 Geology..............................................................
4.3 Soils.................................................................
4.4 Topography...........................................................
4.5 Hydrology............................................................
-
HABITATS
-
LAND AREA
6.1 Terrestrial Vegetation....................................................
6.2 Terrestrial Vertebrates....................................................
6.3 Aquatic Vertebrates......................................................
6.4 Terrestrial Invertebrates...................................................
- MARINE AREA
7.1 Marine Vertebrates......................................................
7.2 Marine Invertebrates.....................................................
7.3 Subterranean Ecosystems..................................................
-
MANAGEMENT OBJECTIVES...............................................
-
CONSERVATION SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PARK
APPENDIX 1 — Christmas Island Native Plants
APPENDIX 2 — Christmas Island Vertebrates.....................................22
APPENDIX 3 — Native Species Listed under the EPBC Act
APPENDIX 4 — Native Land and Shoreline Crabs
APPENDIX 5 — Fishes of Christmas Island
Table of Figures
Figure 1. Location of Christmas Island
Figure 2. Christmas Island National Park Boundaries
Figure 3. Map of Christmas Island Access and Visitor Destinations
Figure 4. Map of Christmas Island showing Rainforest Rehabilitation Sites and Mining Fields.
Figure 5. Map Showing Surface Geology.............................................
Figure 6. Map Showing Vegetation
Figure 7. Cave Development and Freshwater Lens
- LOCATION AND ACCESS
Christmas Island is located in the Indian Ocean at 10° 25’S and 105° 40’E. It is approximately 2800 kilometres (km) west of Darwin, 2600 km north-west of Perth, and 360 km south of the western head of Java (Figure 1). The island covers approximately 135 sq km, of which about 85 sq km (63%) is Christmas Island National Park (the Park, Figure 2). In addition to this terrestrial area, the Park includes a marine area extending 50 m seaward of the low water mark where terrestrial areas of the Park include the coastline. This marine area incorporates approximately 46 km (63%) of the island’s 73 km of coastline.
Air services to the island have been variable in recent years, with one provider withdrawing from the scheduled Perth service in 1997. At March 2002, regular passenger transport from Perth via Cocos (Keeling) Islands is currently operated by National Jet Systems under a charter arrangement with the Commonwealth. There is also a scheduled return passenger service from Jakarta in Indonesia, operated by the Community airline. There is a reasonably safe anchorage at Flying Fish Cove during the dry season (approximately April to October). Two shipping companies operate a regular shipping service ex-Perth and Singapore via Cocos (Keeling) Islands carrying essential supplies. A network of roads and tracks provides access to most parts of the island including the Park.
Figure 1. Location of Christmas Island
View image in the official source
2. HISTORY OF CHRISTMAS ISLAND
The first written record of the island was made by John Milward on board the Thomas in 1615. On 25 December 1643, Captain William Mynors of the Royal Mary saw the island and named it after the day. Mynors could not find an anchorage and so did not land.
The first recorded landing was in 1688 by a crew from the British buccaneer vessel, Cygnet, who were sent ashore by William Dampier for water and timber. From Dampier’s description it seems that this landing was near the Dales (see Figure 3). Although several landings were made in the next 69 years, it was not until 1857 that an attempt was made by the crew of the Amethyst to explore the island. Their venture was limited by the inland cliffs and dense jungle.
The first extensive exploration was in 1887, when a small party from HMS Egeria reached the summit of Murray Hill (see Figure 3). It was this party that collected the rock specimens of almost pure phosphate of lime that were to determine the future of the island over the next century.
Figure 2. Christmas Island National Park Boundaries
View image in the official source
In 1888 Christmas Island was declared part of the British Dominion as the result of pressure from two prospective entrepreneurs. In November 1888 George Clunies-Ross from the Cocos (Keeling) Islands landed his brother Andrew and family to establish the first settlement at Flying Fish Cove. Clunies-Ross wanted exploitation rights, and John Murray, a Scottish scientist, wanted to mine phosphate. They negotiated a joint lease for the whole of the island in 1891 to export timber, phosphate and other minerals and in 1897 formed the Christmas Island Phosphate Company. About 200 Chinese labourers, 8 Europeans and 5 Sikh policemen arrived in 1898 and phosphate mining commenced in the Phosphate Hill area. C.W. Andrews of the British Museum was commissioned by Murray to undertake a ten-month study of the island's natural history. Andrews did a comparative study when he returned in 1908. His monograph remains the classic scientific reference on the island's natural history.
The first commercial shipment of phosphate was made in 1901. The mining operation was labour intensive, and continued until World War II, when many of the European residents were evacuated in anticipation of a Japanese invasion. The Japanese invaded in 1942 and the island was occupied until 1945. During this time some phosphate was mined, but this was discontinued after the first two shiploads were torpedoed.
Figure 3. Map of Christmas Island Access and Visitor Destinations
View image in the official source
After the war, the lease and assets of the Christmas Island Phosphate Company were sold to the Australian and New Zealand Governments. Through the Christmas Island Agreement of 1949, the Christmas Island Phosphate Commission (CIPC) was formed, with the British Phosphate Commissioners (BPC) appointed as managing agents. Phosphate mining resumed in 1946 and has continued since, except for the two years 1988–89 during which ownership of the mining lease changed. Mining began on the eastern side of the island, but spread progressively west. In the late 1960s the phosphate reserves were accurately mapped. This involved clearing parallel grid lines every 400 feet (120 m) over most of the top of the island.
On 1 January 1958, Christmas Island, which had until then been administered as part of the Colony of Singapore, became a separate colony of Great Britain. On 1 October 1958, sovereignty was transferred to Australia, and since that time the Commonwealth Government has been increasingly involved in Island affairs.
The ethnic make-up of Christmas Island is diverse. The first settlement of the Clunies-Ross family included some Javanese people, as well as Cocos-Malays. Chinese labourers were contracted when the mine was first established, and other workers came from Java and Ambon. Indians were brought to the island to supervise the labourers.
In the early days life was very difficult for the labourers working far from their families and homelands. The living conditions were primitive and work for the mine, or building railways and roads, was exhausting. Some workers lost their lives from diseases such as beri-beri, and due to harsh conditions and inadequate nutrition. In order to supplement their deficient diets, the Chinese, Malay and other Asian workers hunted some of the edible wildlife and harvested fish and other marine animals. The natural resources of the island environment were essential for the survival of these new Islanders. Despite the difficult conditions, Chinese and Malay people established strong religious and cultural practices on the island, which remain today.
Following World War II, more workers were employed from Malaysia, Singapore and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, to assist in re-establishing the mining operation and to build infrastructure. Although the mining operation was increasingly mechanised, conditions for workers remained poor. Local social and political changes occurred with the formation of the Union of Christmas Island Workers in 1975. The Union campaigned to bring island working conditions into line with mainland conditions, and for higher wages. Throughout the 1980s working conditions slowly improved. The Union remains a strong force in island social and political affairs.
In 1980, Mr W.W. Sweetland was commissioned by the Government to investigate the future of the phosphate industry. In December 1985, following the recommendations of a Government working party on the future of Christmas Island, the operations of the Phosphate Mining Company of Christmas Island were transferred to the Phosphate Mining Corporation of Christmas Island. On 11 November 1987, citing diminishing resources and industrial unrest, the Government ceased mining and began winding-up the corporation. On 26 September 1990, a lease providing for limited phosphate mining was signed between the Government and a private company, Phosphate Resources Limited (PRL). A subsequent lease was signed in 1997 for a further 21 years. This operation was limited to previously mined areas (Figure 4), and a condition of the lease is that no more primary rainforest be cleared and that a conservation levy be paid to the Commonwealth Government by the company.
The population in 1991 was 1275, of whom three-quarters were of Chinese descent, about 15% of European or Australian descent and about 8% of Malay descent. The population later increased to about 2500 following the development of a resort and casino and the launching of a 10-year, Commonwealth-funded rebuilding program to upgrade island infrastructure. Subsequent closure of the resort and casino and completion of the rebuilding program has seen the island population fall to around that of 1991.
Figure 4. Map of Christmas Island showing Rainforest Rehabilitation sites and mining fields.
View image in the official source
Most redundant mining infrastructure has been removed and transported off the island. Privatisation of a number of Government services such as stevedoring, environmental protection and monitoring, asset services and social security has occurred.
There is currently a proposal by a private consortium to develop and construct a satellite launching facility at South Point. Mining and the public service account for most employment of residents, with the Christmas Island Shire Council and the private sector providing a varying number of jobs. Politically, Christmas Islanders are represented by the Shire Council and the federal seat of Lingiari.
3. HISTORY OF THE NATIONAL PARK
Since the first exploration of Christmas Island, there has always been interest in its natural history. John Murray (one of the partners in the original Christmas Island Phosphate Company), recognised that phosphate mining would have an impact, and commissioned C.W. Andrews of the British Museum to study the natural history of the island prior to the start of mining and after 10 years of mining. This study has served as a baseline for later natural history investigations.
The prevailing view until the late 1960s was that mining would not cause excessive damage to the natural environment, because it was planned to mine only limited areas of the island.
However, the impact of mining became a matter of general concern when the Phosphate Hill and South Point phosphate deposits were worked out and mining activities commenced in the western sector of the island. This new mining activity was obviously affecting a rare Indian Ocean seabird, Abbott’s Booby, whose last remaining nesting habitat is the inland forest of Christmas Island. Scientists and nature conservation organisations expressed their concern about the threat to Abbott’s Booby and the island environment in general. In 1973 the island Administrator formed an environmental advisory committee to report and advise on general environmental topics, and in 1974 the British Phosphate Commissioners appointed a conservation officer.
In 1974 the House of Representatives Standing Committee on Environment and Conservation examined the effect of mining and other activities on the flora and fauna of Christmas Island, with special reference to bird species in danger of extinction. It also examined rainforest rehabilitation following mining and advised on further measures to protect the environment.
One of the Standing Committee’s recommendations was that an area be reserved for conservation. As a result of this report a reconnaissance team of scientists visited Christmas Island in 1975 and broadly endorsed the recommendations of the Standing Committee. Many of the Committee’s recommendations have since been implemented and significant progress has been made with nature conservation. Some of the important developments were the appointment in 1977 of a Government Conservator to advise and assist the Administrator on conservation, the initiation of a comprehensive program monitoring the breeding success and conservation of Abbott’s Booby and the declaration of Christmas Island National Park in 1980. The appointment of the first Conservator from the New Zealand Government reflected the interest of both Governments in the island’s phosphate reserves.
The original recommendation for a reserve on Christmas Island came from members of the reconnaissance team who suggested that an area be reserved in the vicinity of Murray Hill. Declaration of the National Park followed extensive discussions between the then Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service (ANPWS), and interested parties. The reserve area was extended to include the entire south-west corner of the island, including Murray Hill. This proposal was supported by the former Department of Home Affairs and the Department of Administrative Services. In December 1978, the Christmas Island Phosphate Commission accepted the creation of a National Park in this area, and the New Zealand Government later gave their formal approval.
A notice of intent to recommend the declaration of the Christmas Island National Park and seeking public representations was published in the Gazette on 4 October 1979. Nine representations were received all supporting establishment of the Park. Subsequently Christmas Island National Park was declared by Proclamation under the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1975 on 21 February 1980.
The 1983 Senate inquiry, The Preservation of the Abbott’s Booby on Christmas Island, recommended investigation of the ‘possible extension of the Christmas Island National Park to include Block 22 A and Smithson’s Bight Terraces’. Christmas Island (Stage Two) National Park, including the shore terraces around North West Point, and Christmas Island (Stage Three) National Park, on the eastern side of the original Park, were proclaimed on 31 January in 1986.
On 20 December 1989 the three National Parks together with additional areas of freshwater mangroves and other unique vegetation, much of the remaining undisturbed rainforest, crucial areas of habitat for species such as Abbott’s Booby, the Christmas Island Frigatebird and blue and red crabs, and the area extending 50 metres offshore, were incorporated into a single Park, the current Park named Christmas Island National Park.
On 16 July 2000 the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1975 was replaced by the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 and the Park is now a Commonwealth Reserve under that Act.
Before the 1986 and 1989 Proclamations, Australian and international public opinion was sought on the proposals. On both occasions many representations (mostly non-residents) were received recommending that not only the proposed extensions be proceeded with, but also that further areas be incorporated into the National Park. In response to this expression of concern for the preservation of Christmas Island and its unique environment the Australian Nature Conservation Agency (formerly ANPWS), now Parks Australia, was instructed by the Minister to prepare a proposal for further extensions to the National Park. Opposition to this action was received from the local community and as yet the proposed extensions have not been initiated. However, the current Park boundaries are generally in the process of being reviewed, particularly in the north east area, as the golf course, community purpose land use areas and quarry operations may overlap with the gazetted Park boundaries.
4. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
4.1 Climate
Christmas Island lies at the southern edge of the equatorial low pressure belt that moves north and south of the equator during the course of the year. This confers a typical tropical, equatorial climate with a wet and a dry season. The wet season is from December to April when the north-west monsoon blows. For the rest of the year south-east trade winds bring slightly lower temperatures and humidity, and much less rain. Although the seasons are distinct, south-easterly winds may occur in the wet season and some rain may fall in any month of the year.
Rainfall: The mean annual rainfall (based on data collected over the last 25 years) is 2154 millimetres. Most falls between November and May with February and March the wettest months. August, September and October are the driest months. The pattern of the average number of rain-days per month follows that of the average monthly rainfall, decreasing from 20 in March to 9 in September/October. During the monsoon, heavy downpours lasting several days and periods of humid calm weather are punctuated by gusty north-westerly winds. From May to November, long dry periods with steady south-east trade winds and occasional showers predominate. In years of significant El Nino activity in the Pacific Ocean, rainfall on the island tends to be relatively low. Cyclones and cyclonic swells from the north-west sometimes affect the island during the wet season.
Humidity: Because of the oceanic influence, relative humidity does not vary seasonally as much as rainfall, usually ranging from 80–90%. Cloud mists at higher altitudes occur during the wet season and dews are occasional.
Temperature: As with relative humidity, temperatures on the island vary little from month to month. The average daily maximum temperature reaches 28º Celsius in March/April and the average daily minimum temperature falls to 22º Celsius in August/September.
4.2 Geology
Andrews (1900), Trueman (1965), Barrie (1967), Barrett (1973), Pettifer and Polak (1979), Veeh (1985), and Varne (1988) have variously described the formation and geology of Christmas Island. The island is believed to be on a tectonic plate moving northwards a few centimetres a year that puts its present location some 700 km, or about 15 degrees of latitude, north of where it first emerged from the sea (see Figure 5). One theory is that about 60 million years ago an undersea volcano rose to the surface and a coral atoll formed. Some 20 million years ago, the atoll began to subside and limestone accumulated as the corals sank. About 10 million years ago the subsidence reversed and an island emerged in a series of uplifts that give it a stepped appearance. Each terrace was formed by the combined effects of fringing reef development and erosion of the sea cliff before the next uplift occurred. Examples of more recent faulting with lava flows (which probably occurred underwater) can be seen at the Dales, Dolly Beach, Waterfall, Ross Hill Gardens, Winifred Beach and Egeria Point. Caves and sinkholes typical of limestone formations occur at many points on the island.
Phosphate deposits: The phosphorites commonly found on coral islands were thought to originate from guano, but are now believed to result from lagoonal marine sediments on Christmas Island, although the chemistry of their formation is unclear.
4.3 Soils
The soils of Christmas Island are derived from two sources – limestone (terra rossa soils) or basaltic extrusive rocks (krasnozem soils).
Terra rossa soils: Occur mainly on exposed terraces, and are predominantly thin, red-grey soils that dry out rapidly. They may have a high phosphate content and be over 30 m deep.
Krasnozem soils: Occur in areas of volcanic activity or in fault or fissure zones. They are red brown in colour.
However, as there has been no systematic evaluation of the non mined/non phosphate reserve regions of the island it is possible that other soil types may exist. Soil microbial processes involved in nutrient cycling are not well understood and further research in this area would be desirable.
The soils are usually neutral to alkaline (pH of 7.0–8.0). The soil horizons are locally referred to in terms of C, B and A-grade ores. C-grade soils (the ‘overburden’ of miners) are the highest in the soil profile and are a reddish brown colour, with a low phosphate content and composed of the minerals crandallite and millisite. B-grade is light brown to cream in colour and composed of a mix of crandallite, millisite and apatite. A-grade material is cream to white in colour, with a high phosphate content and consists of apatite.
4.4 Topography
The coast consists of mostly sheer, rocky cliffs from 10–20 m high with a few, small sand and coral rubble beaches. The interior is a slightly undulating plateau, from 160–360 m above sea level. A series of steep slopes or cliffs with intervening narrow terraces separate the central plateau from the shore. Generally a wider terrace is located immediately inland above the shoreline.
Figure 5. Map Showing Surface Geology
4.5 Hydrology
Most rain percolates through the soil and limestone and surface run-off only occurs after heavy rain. A few perennial streams flow at the Dales, Ross Hill Gardens, The Ravine, Jones Spring, Freshwater Spring, Dolly Beach, Hosnie’s Spring and Waterfall. These streams begin as springs at the interface of limestone and less porous basalt and remain at the surface where they flow over volcanic rock. A few streams reach the sea, while others flow underground where they meet limestone. Underground water accumulates at the interface of limestone and the underlying volcanic rock strata. Here it either flows along the interface, as in the case of the flow system from Grant’s Well through Jedda Cave and Jane-up beyond, or flows down fractures in the volcanic rock. The flows along the limestone-volcanic rock interface emerge in some places as springs.
Groundwater: Underground water accumulates at the interface of limestone and the underlying volcanic rock strata. Here it either flows along the interface, as in the case of the flow system from Grant’s Well through Jedda Cave and Jane-up beyond, or flows down fractures in the volcanic rock. Where the limestone capping is below sea level, the water enters the sea via fissures, as at the ‘waterfall’ (or ‘gusher’) in the lower Daniel Roux Cave, or as more diffuse flows through smaller fissures, often within cave systems such as Freshwater Cave at Smithson’s Bight, Runaway Cave near the Golf Course and Lost Lake Cave on the north coast. There is evidence of a freshwater lens floating on top of underlying seawater. The flows just above sea level from some of the cave systems on the island are thought to be the outflows from the edges of such a lens.
It is believed that the water table in the volcanic centre of the island is higher than elsewhere owing to the relatively low permeability of that type of rock. At the edges of the island the water table drops to just above sea level owing to the much higher permeability of limestone.
5. HABITATS
Christmas Island can be viewed as a series of terraces around an irregular plateau with the lower terrace cliffs steeper and higher than the upper terraces. The deepest soils occur on the central plateau and the upper terraces. The distribution of plants can be correlated to soil depth and moisture, exposure and distance from the sea. The coastal zone is generally saline with thin soils. The zone immediately behind this is also a harsh habitat for most plants, especially where it faces the prevailing south-easterly winds. Pandanus spp. and Scaevola taccada are typical of places exposed to salt spray. Further inland, the environment becomes more sheltered and rainforest exists with structure and floristics determined by the depth and type of soil.
The island environment can be classified into 12 broad habitats.
- Marine – the ocean waters, sand flats, caves, coral reefs and outer reef slopes and drop-offs, and coral heads or ‘bommies’.
- Shoreline rock platforms – these occur at many locations around the island, more extensively on the western coastline between North West Point and Egeria Point. At low tide there are many tidal rock pools with a variety of marine invertebrates and fish.
- Beaches – formed of coarse coral and shell rubble, often with limestone outcrops; there are some small sand beaches on the north and east coasts. Dolly and Greta Beaches provide habitat for hermit and ghost crabs and are the only beaches with sufficient and stable deposits of sand to support turtle nesting activity.
- Sea cliffs – these average 10-20 m high, rising to 60 m at Steep Point. A harsh environment, exposed to salt spray and salt laden wind where plans such as Pemphis acidula, Pandanus christmatensis, Argusia argentea and Scaevola taccada are common. This is also a Silver Bosun and Brown Booby nesting habitat.
- Terrace rainforest – an area of generally shallow soils prone to dehydration in the dry season. Open, semi-deciduous rainforest is typical on the coastal terraces, with scrambling and spiny shrubs and vines. Both vine and canopy forests also occur. Typical species are Acronychia trifoliolata, Berrya cordifolia, Calophyllum inophyllum, Erythrina variegata, Hibiscus tiliaceus, Kleinhovia hospita, Ochrosia ackeringae, Pandanus elatus, Pisonia grandis, Gyrocarpus americanus and Terminalia catappa.
- Shallow soil rainforest on the higher terraces – generally thin soils and exposed limestone pinnacles. Typical canopy species include Celtis timorensis, Dysoxylum gaudichaudianum, Ficus microcarpa, Arenga listeri, Planchonella nitida and Tristiropsis acutangula. Vegetation has a lower upper canopy and is floristically richer than the primary evergreen rainforest of the plateau. Pockets of deeper soil occur in this region, supporting primary evergreen rainforest.
- Limestone scree slopes and pinnacles – the inland cliffs rise out of the semi-deciduous terrace rainforest and support Ficus microcarpa, Maclura cochinchinensis, Gyrocarpus americanus, Erythrina variegata, Derringia amaranthoides and Dendrocnide spp.
- Deeper plateau and terrace soils evergreen rainforest – typically a tall evergreen rainforest with emergent trees to 45 m and the habitat for the Abbott’s Booby. Typical emergent species are Syzygium nervosum, Ficus microcarpa, Planchonella nitida and Hernandia ovigera.
The upper canopy is comprised of Barringtonia racemosa, Inocarpus fagifer, Cryptocarya nitens, Dysoxylum gaudichaudianum and Tristiropsis acutangula. The understorey is composed of Arenga listeri, Pandanus elatus, Leea angulata, Ochrosia ackeringae, Pisonia umbellifera and various shrubs and ferns.
- Mangrove forest – there are no coastal mangroves, but a stand of normally estuarine Bruguiera gymnorhiza and B. sexangula occurs at Hosnie’s Spring (listed as a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention) about 50 metres above sea level. Two other mangrove species occur on the east coast. Heritiera littoralis occurs on the inland terrace above Greta Beach (outside the Park) and further south towards Dolly Beach, as well as a discrete stand on the terrace above Dean’s Point. Cynometra ramiflora occurs in a single stand south of Ross Hill summit, at 220–300 m altitude, on damp soil near basalt outcrops.
- Perennially wet areas – typically support Inocarpus fagifer and other common species and are habitat for blue crabs.
- Karst, comprising caves, overhangs, rock crevices and sinkholes – glossy swiftlets nest in the caves and overhangs (refer to the cave management plan for details of other cave fauna).
- Mining fields – typically limestone pinnacles, boulders, chalk and very thin soils remain after mining. These thin soils support the ferns Nephrolepis multiflora and Psilotum nudum and the exotics Mimosa invisa, M. pudica and Muntingia calabura. Stockpiles of topsoil are colonised by Claoxylon indicum, Macaranga tanarius, Melochia umbellata and the exotics, Leucaena leucocephala and Muntingia calabura.
6. LAND AREA
Flora
6.1 Terrestrial Vegetation
Three main categories of forest vegetation can be distinguished on Christmas Island: primary rainforest; marginal rainforest; and scrub forest (DuPuy 1988). Other restricted vegetation types, coastal fringe, and shorecliff and spray zone (DuPuy 1988), occur on the inland cliffs and scree slopes and at the coastal edge. These five types of natural vegetation are protected on Christmas Island under Part 9 (Schedule 12) of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Regulations 2000.
Mitchell (1974) grouped the principal canopy communities according to three altitude zones: 0 –130 m, with 35 taxa represented; 130–200 m, with 31 taxa; and over 200 m, with 26 taxa.
Mitchell recognised climax edaphic (in a stable condition influenced by the soil), climax climatic (in a stable condition and influenced by climate) and seral (successional stage) vegetation. These were subdivided as follows:
climax edaphic
• tall closed forest, deep soil phase
• closed forest, shallow soil phase
• closed forest, scree and pinnacle phase
• open forest and vine woodland
• closed forest, freshwater seepage
climax climatic
• heath shrubland
• low, closed woodland
seral vegetation
• natural vegetative colonisation of human disturbance areas
• storm damaged and tree fall sites
Tracey (1991) recognised two groups of plateau forest based on structure: – semi-deciduous mesophyll vine forest (SDMVF) and complex mesophyll vine forest (CMVF) – that he noted as being floristically simpler than CMVFs elsewhere. He classified the terrace forest into SDMVF and deciduous vine forest, and noted that ‘The common canopy species eg Pisonia grandis, Erythrina variegata and Terminalia catappa are shared with Australia’s tropical coastline, and Gyrocarpus americanus is widespread throughout tropical Australia but never reaches the size common in this forest type on Christmas Island.’
The Christmas Island vegetation map (Figure 7) has been adapted from Mitchell (1984), the Christmas Island Geographic Information System (Bureau of Rural Science 1996), and observations made by Parks Australia North staff and P. Green (Monash University), and is the model generally used for management and research purposes.
Figure 6. Map Showing Vegetation
View image in the official source
There are 18 species that are endemic to the island (see Table 1)
Table 1. Endemic plants
Abutilon listeri shrub coast and shore terraces frequent Arenga listeri palm most habitats frequent Asplenium listeri fern Margaret Knoll very rare Asystasia alba herb terrace forest occasional Brachypeza archytas epiphytic orchid terrace forest frequent Colubrina pedunculata shrub terrace vegetation occasional Dendrocnide peltata tree tops of inland cliffs occasional var. murrayana Dicliptera maclearii herb lower terraces marginal forest rare Flickingeria nativitatis epiphytic orchid primary rainforest occasional
Grewia insularis tree terrace forest occasional Hoya aldrichii epiphytic vine forest canopy abundant Ischaemum nativitatis grass pinnacles behind sea cliffs occasional Pandanus elatus shrub or tree forest understorey frequent Pandanus christmatensis shrub tops of shore & inland cliffs abundant Peperomia rossii epiphytic herb distribution unknown possibly extinct Phreatia listeri epiphytic orchid tall plateau forest canopy occasional Zeuxine exilis terrestrial orchid distribution unknown possibly extinct Zehneria alba vine shrubby margins or in forest
Plants rare to the island. Several small, isolated occurrences of plants are known which are consequently rare on the island, though not necessarily rare elsewhere.
- Two mangroves, Bruguiera gymnorhiza and B. sexangula, occur as unusually tall trees in a half-hectare stand at Hosnie’s Spring, about 1 km east of Gannet Hill on a basalt outcrop on the shore terrace 50 m above sea level. These trees are presumed to have persisted since the area was at sea level, and the locality is listed by the Ramsar Convention as a Wetland of International Importance.
- Cynometra ramiflora – a mangrove up to 20 m tall, characteristic of the less saline areas of coastal mangrove forests. There is a single stand south of Ross Hill – another example of a coastal mangrove far from the sea.
- Bauhinia binata – a climbing shrub known from a single locality at North West Point.
- Clerodendron inerme – a scrambling shrub known from a single locality above Greta Beach.
- Commicarpus chinensis – a scrambling herb that grows on rock ledges at North West Point.
- Cycas rumphii – a cycad that occurs individually on the East Coast and as a stand near North West Point at about 300 m above sea level. This species is usually distributed by sea, suggesting that the sparse population has persisted since the island was at sea level.
- Dioscorea bulbifera – a climbing vine known from two localities: south of Camp Hill and the Greta Beach terrace.
- Entada rheedii – a huge, woody vine growing on the shore terrace of Greta Beach. The 4 cm wide, disc-shaped seeds are often washed up on this beach.
- Ischaemum muticum – a stoloniferous grass found only on the back dunes of Dolly Beach.
- Ophioglossum reticulatum – a small terrestrial fern known only in an old minefield south of Wharton Hill.
- Spondias cytherea – a large, deciduous tree known only from three localities.
- Sporobolus virginicus – a tufted grass occurring in the spray zone at Norris Point.
- Vitis flexuosa – a vine known only from three localities.
Note: some of the endemic plants described above are also rare eg. Asplenium listeri, Peperomia rossii and Zeuxine exilis.
Exotic plants. Most of the exotic plants of Christmas Island are in the settled area and along road verges and mine fields. Unfortunately, some including Cocos nucifera, Mangifera odorata, Aleurites moluccana var. molucanna, Adenanthera pavonia, Barringtonia asiatica, Spathodea campanulata, Delonix regia, Pterocarpus indicus, Muntingia calabura and Tecoma stans were planted during former minefield rehabilitation operations and most of these species are spreading in disturbed areas. Others, like Carica papaya, Psidium guajava, Mikania micrantha, Ricinus communis, Tithonia diversifolia, Clausena excavata, Antigonon leptopus, Paederia foetida, Macroptilium atropurpureum, Ipomoea spp., Stachytarpheta jamaicensis, Cordia curassavica, Celosia argentea, Leucaena leucocephala, Mimosa invisa and Mimosa pudica are also spreading quickly in disturbed areas.
Fauna
The terrestrial fauna of Christmas Island is dominated by land crabs and in particular by the red land crab Gecarcoidea natalis. Red crabs are the dominant consumers on the forest floor, and they play a major role in determining the structure and function of the rainforest on Christmas Island.
6.2 Terrestrial Vertebrates
Native Mammals. Of the five native mammals, two have become extinct since the arrival of humans. Two rat species apparently went extinct within a few years of the introduction of exotic rodents by early human colonisers. The Christmas Island shrew was thought to be extinct before two specimens were found in 1984 and 1985, and it is now listed as Critically Endangered. Despite extensive surveys in 1997–98 and 2000, there have been no confirmed sightings since. The Christmas Island pipistrelle, which is an endemic small insectivorous bat, was previously common and widespread on the island. However, in the last decade it has declined markedly in distribution and abundance, and is now classified as Endangered. It is not fully understood what has caused this rapid decline.
The Christmas Island flying-fox is an endemic subspecies which is widespread across the island. In contrast to most species of bats it is largely diurnal, and so can be easily seen in flight during the day.
Introduced mammals. Two exotic wild mammals have been introduced, the black rat (or ‘ship rat’ as it is now more commonly called) and the house mouse. There are doubtful references to two other rats – the Pacific and brown – but if they were introduced they have not survived. Feral domestic cats are numerous and widespread. Goats and pigs were once present but have now been eradicated from the island. Stray dogs occur round the settled areas.
Native reptiles. Of six native terrestrial reptiles, five are endemic. The sixth is the foreshore skink (Emoia atrocostata), common also on other oceanic islands. The five endemics include two skinks, the blue-tailed skink (Cryptoblepharus egeriae) and the forest skink (Emoia nativitatis); two geckos, the giant gecko (Cyrtodactylus sp. nov.) and the Christmas Island gecko (Lepidodactylus listeri); and one burrowing snake, the pink blind snake (Ramphotyphlops exocoeti). There has been a marked decline in the range of several species over the previous decade. The endemic blue tailed skink has virtually disappeared from the north-east and eastern parts of the island, and the Christmas Island gecko or tree gecko appears to have suffered a severe decline in numbers.
Introduced reptiles. Five exotic reptiles comprising two geckos, one skink and two snakes occur in and around the settled area. These are regionally abundant species associated with human colonisation. The house gecko (Gehyra mutilata), the barking gecko (Hemidactylus frenatus), and the black blind snake (Ramphotyphlops braminus) are found in the Park. The wolf snake (Lycodon aulicus capucinus) appears to be moving further into the rainforest, and grass skinks (Lygosoma bowringii) have recently been seen on the fringe of the Park rainforest. It is possible (although this is still to be determined) that the wolf snake is having a major impact on the conservation status of the pipistrelle bat, and possibly a number of the reptile species.
Land birds. Of the 11 native land birds and shorebirds, seven are endemic species or subspecies. The glossy cave swiftlet (Collocalia esculenta natalis) feeds on flying insects and nests in caves or overhangs. The Imperial Pigeon (Ducula whartoni) feeds mainly on fruits in the rainforest and settled areas. The Emerald Dove (Chalcophaps indica natalis) feeds on fruits, seeds and insects on the forest floor. The Christmas Island Hawk-owl (Ninox natalis– listed as endangered) and the Goshawk (Accipiter fasciatus natalis– also listed as endangered)) feed on small mammals, birds, reptiles and invertebrates. DNA sequence research has identified that the Hawk-owl should be treated as a separate species (Ninox natalis) from the Moluccan Hawk-owl (Ninox squamipila), of which it was previously thought to be a sub-species. The Christmas Island White-eye (Zosterops natalis) and the Christmas Island Thrush (Turdus poliocephalus erythropleurus) are common in the Park and feed on fruit, nectar and insects. The Australasian Kestrel (Falco cenchroides) and the White-faced Heron (Ardea novaehollandae) are established in open areas. Eastern Reef Egrets (Egretta sacra) occur in small numbers around the shoreline.The White-breasted Water Hen (Amaurornis phoenicurus) from south-east Asia is now established and breeding in the north-east section of the Park and on the fringes of the settled areas.
Seabirds. Of the eight species or sub-species of sea-birds that nest in the Park three are endemic. The most numerous sea-bird is the widespread Red-footed Booby (Sula sula rubripes), which nests in colonies in trees on many parts of the shore terrace and inland terraces. The widespread Brown Booby (Sula leucogaster plotus) nests on the ground at the edge of the seacliff and inland cliffs. Abbott’s Booby (Papasula abbotti – listed as endangered) nests on tall emergent trees of the western and southern plateau rainforest. This forest is the only remaining nesting habitat of Abbott’s Booby left in the world. Abbott’s Booby is now considered endemic to the island. The endemic Christmas Island Frigatebird (Fregata andrewsi – listed as endangered) has three well-defined nesting areas: one above the Golf Course; one on the western side of Smith Point below the phosphate driers; and another in the forest on the north coast between North East Point and Settlement. The widespread Great Frigatebird (Fregata minor minor) nests in trees on the shore terrace. The greatest concentrations are around North West Point and the western terraces of South Point. The Least Frigatebird (Fregata ariel) has been recorded and a nesting pair were recently observed on the shore terrace above West White Beach. The Common Noddy (Anous stolidus pileatus) nests on ledges along the seacliff and in trees on the shore terrace.
There are two species of Bosun or Tropicbird. The Red-tailed Tropicbird or Silver Bosun (Phaethon rubricauda westralis) nests in depressions along the coastal and inland cliffs while the endemic sub-species of White-tailed Tropicbird, the Golden Bosun (Phaethon lepturus fulvus), uses tree and cliff hollows all over the island.
Vagrants and migrant birds. Some 76 vagrant or migrant bird species have been recorded on the island from time to time and these include: the Pacific Golden Plover (Pluvialis fulva), Oriental Plover (Charadrius veredus), Red-capped/Kentish Plover (Charadrius spp.), Little Curlew (Numenius minutus), Ruddy Turnstone (Arenaria interpres), Common Greenshank (Tringa nebularia), Snipe spp. (Gallinago spp.), Red-necked Stint (Calidris ruficollis), Oriental Pratincole (Glareola maldivarum), Australian Pratincole (Stiltia isabella), Wedge-tailed Shearwater (Puffinus pacificus), Matsudaira’s Storm-petrel (Oceanodroma matsudairae), Australian Pelican (Pelicanus conspicillatus), Great Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo), Least Frigatebird (Fregata ariel), Striated Heron (Butorides striatus), Rufous Night Heron (Gorsachius melanolophus), Yellow Bittern (Ixobrychus sinensis), Black Bittern (Dupetor flavicollis), Sooty Oystercatcher (Haematopus fuliginosa), Grey Plover (Pluvialis squatarola), Little Ringed Plover (Charadrius dubius), Black-winged Stilt (Himantopus himantopus), Wood Sandpiper (Tringa glareola), Marsh Sandpiper (Tringa stagnatilis), Grey Wagtail (Motacilla cinerea), Yellow Wagtail (Motacilla flava), Red-rumped Swallow (Hirundo daurica), and the Fork-tailed Swift (Apus pacificus).
Introduced birds. Chickens have become feral and occur around the fringes of the Park, while some ducks and turkeys exist under semi free-range conditions in the settled area. Java Sparrows (Padda oryzivora) and Tree Sparrows (Passer montanus) are established round the settled area. Java Sparrows have also spread to the fringes of the Park in the Irvine Hill and Hanitch Hill area.
6.3 Aquatic Vertebrates
The limited availability of permanent, above-ground freshwater sources has restricted the numbers and types of aquatic vertebrates found on Christmas Island, although further surveys are required in this area. At least seven species have been recorded from freshwater environments on the island, all except one of which are probably introduced. Only one species, the native brown gudgeon, has been recorded from caves. Those species recorded to date are the Asian bony tongue (Scleropages formosus), brown gudgeon (Eleotris fusca), tilapia (Oreochromis sp.), guppy (Poecilia reticulata), mosquito fish (Gambusia affinis), swordtail (Xiphophorus maculatus) and ‘terrapins’ (Class Reptilia). Terrapins occur in the tank at Ross Hill Gardens but they have not been identified and are probably released pets or escapees.
6.4 Terrestrial Invertebrates
Most of the described terrestrial invertebrates also occur in tropical areas to the north. The inventory of the invertebrate fauna is incomplete and several hundred collected specimens await identification. To date, 20 species of terrestrial and intertidal crabs (of which 13 are regarded as true land crabs depending on the ocean only for their larval development), one freshwater prawn, 14 snails, several butterflies, some 70 moths, 90 beetles, 11 cockroaches (one of which is endemic), 30 spiders, one scorpion, five false scorpions and 1 amblypygid have been described.
The diversity and abundance of land crabs are striking features of the invertebrate fauna, not matched on any other island. All 13 species occur in the Park and all habitats support one or more species. The red crab (Gecarcoidea natalis) occurs only on Christmas Island (and sporadically on North Keeling Island), and Jackson’s crab (Sesama obtusifrons) may also be endemic as it has not been recorded elsewhere. The blue crab (Cardisoma hirtipes), though a widespread species, occurs in its blue form only on Christmas Island. The robber crab (Birgus latro) is common on Christmas Island, and although it was once widespread throughout the Indo-Pacific region many of these populations have been severely depleted. All species of land crabs migrate to the sea to spawn, and live for the duration of their various larval stages in the ocean.
Introduced terrestrial invertebrates. Honeybees, a centipede, a cockroach, two termites, four species of fruit fly, several spiders and the giant African snail have been introduced to the island and all occur in the Park. During the life of the previous plan the population of the yellow crazy ant has exponentially exploded and has formed multi-queened supercolonies at several locations on the island. This population explosion has major implications for the management of the Christmas Island ecosystem.
7. MARINE AREA
Shoreline platforms slightly above sea level occur round the island, predominantly on the coast between North West Point and Egeria Point. At low tide on these platforms there are many small pools maintained by tides and wave splashes, with a variety of invertebrates and fish. There is little algal growth due to the prevailing heavy seas. The shoreline platforms descend directly to a narrow band of shallow coral reefs with no intervening sandy, shallow reef flats. A few small beaches of coarse coral and shell rubble occur along the coastline. The shallow reefs drop off steeply so that there is little deep reef habitat before abyssal depths are reached.
7.1 Marine Vertebrates
Mammals. Spinner dolphins (Stenella longirostris) are frequently seen in inshore waters and common dolphins (Delphinus delphis) occasionally. Unidentified whale species are infrequently seen round the island. There is one substantiated sighting of a humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) off the north-east coast.
Reptiles. Small numbers of green (Chelonia mydas) and very rarely hawksbill turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata) nest on Dolly and Greta beaches. Undetermined species of sea snakes occur round the island, with the only species recorded being the pelagic yellow-bellied sea snake (Pelamis platurus).
View image in the official sourceFish. Some 575 species of fish have been identified from the island’s waters. The faunal composition is typical of Indo-Pacific islands with nearly 68% of species widespread in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Altogether, the fish fauna is more closely allied to the West Pacific province of the Indo-West Pacific faunal region than to the East Indian Ocean region. In fact, less than 10% of the fish are restricted to the Indian Ocean (Allen and Steene 1988, Berry 1988). As is the case with most Indo-Pacific islands the rate of endemism is low and only three species, the pygmy angelfish and two undescribed pseudochromids, are apparently endemic to Christmas and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands.
Whale sharks (Rhincodon typus) and manta rays (Manta birostris) occur in inshore waters all year round, higher numbers occurring November to March. Whale sharks have recently been listed as a Threatened Species under the EPBC Act in Australian waters.
7.2 Marine Invertebrates
Christmas Island has a low diversity of coral species, which is attributed to the small size of the island, its isolation from sources of planktonic coral larvae, and the limited range of marine habitats present. During a survey in 1987, 88 species of reef building corals were collected, although this did not provide a complete census of species (Berry 1988). Extensive die-off of corals took place around the island in the early 1980s, and this may have resulted in severe depletion or local extinction of some species. In 1998 there was a widespread coral bleaching event in the Pacific and Indian Oceans and South China Sea. This event may have been triggered by the El Nino weather pattern. Large areas of the Christmas Island fringing reef were affected. The most abundant octocoral on the reefs around the island is blue coral. Gorgons and antipatharians are found in the deeper slopes. Five species of clownfish sea anemones are recorded.
Numerous sponges, including endemic species and varieties, have been found around the island.
A single species of brachiopod has been recorded. A total of 313 species of molluscs were collected in the 1987 survey. Of these, 245 were gastropods, 63 were bivalves and 13 were terebrids. Of the collections of echinoderms made over the last century, eight species are crinoids, 13 are sea stars, 33 are brittlestars, 17 are sea urchins and 16 are holuthurians.
A total of 204 crustacean species are listed for the island. Hermit crabs, Xanthioid crabs and Majid crabs are the dominant marine crabs in terms of species diversity. Grapsid crabs are a very obvious component of the intertidal habitats. Three species of rock lobster have been recorded.
The crustacean fauna reflects the dominance of coral and coral rubble habitats with relatively small areas of sand substrate and the minimal occurrence of mud and fine silts.
7.3 Subterranean Ecosystems
Subterranean fauna are found in air-filled (troglofauna) and water-filled (stygofauna) voids (Figure 7). The subterranean environment of Christmas Island is diverse and includes freshwater, marine, anchialine (subterranean connections to the sea in volcanic or limestone bedrock) and terrestrial habitats (Humphreys and Eberhard 1998).
Poorly known, the cave fauna is nonetheless a significant component of the island’s biodiversity.
With at least 12 endemic species, Christmas Island is a significant cave fauna province in an international context. The cave fauna comprises swiftlets, and a diverse assemblage of invertebrates, both terrestrial and aquatic, including a number of rare and endemic species of high conservation significance.
Notable amongst cave collected fauna are terrestrial isopods (Armadillidae: 3 new species: Taiti in prep), a scorpion (new species: globally only 14 blind scorpions are known, of which only two are known outside the New World tropics), an Amblypygi (new species: Harvey and West 1998), Campodeidae (Diplura: new species) and a nocticolid cockroach (new genus: Roth 1999).
But most notable is the anchialine system which contains a characteristic fauna (procardid [Procaris sp. nov.], alpheid, hippolytid and atyid shrimps) associated with the genus Procaris otherwise known only from Bermuda, Ascension Islands and Hawaii.
Anchialine waters are near coastal groundwater with no surface connection with the sea but under the influence of marine tides. This is a distinctive ecosystem and within the last decade at least ten new families of Crustacea have been described from these newly discovered ecosystems. They are very vulnerable ecosystems (Humphreys et al. 1999) and globally are the subject of widespread conservation assessment.
A survey of cave fauna was carried out in 1998 (Humphreys and Eberhard 1998) and a cave management plan will be prepared and implemented during the life of this Plan.
Figure 7 is a schematic section through Christmas Island that represents the known and hypothesised sites of cave development (shown in black) associated with the freshwater lens on a carbonate island on a basaltic core. The depth of the freshwater lens is greatly exaggerated to allow depiction of the basic thesis:
a) current and former (a1) saltwater interface caves; current (b) and former (b1) air/water interface caves;
b) lens associated caves;
c) basalt associated caves;
d) sinkholes.
There should be an equivalent series of drowned caves a2, b2 and c2 representing the lower sea levels that have existed though most of the Pleistone (explanation in Humphreys and Eberhard (1998) p.34, Figure 3).
Figure 7. Cave Development and Freshwater lens
View image in the official source
8. MANAGEMENT OBJECTIVES
The Park is assigned by the Management Plan to the IUCN (World Conservation Union) protected area “national park” (IUCN category II).
IUCN has adopted the definition of a protected area as:
An area of land and/or sea especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources, and managed through legal or other effective means.
The IUCN has identified six protected area management categories. Category II National Parks are defined as protected areas of land and/or sea managed mainly for ecosystem protection and recreation.
These categories are designated to:
a) protect the ecological integrity of one or more ecosystem for future generations;
b) exclude exploitation of or occupation contrary to the purposes of the designation of the area; and
c) provide a foundation for spiritual, scientific, educational, recreational and visitor opportunities, all of which must be environmentally and culturally compatible.
The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Regulations 2000 prescribe Australian IUCN reserve management principles for the six IUCN protected categories. The principles are set out in Schedule 8 to the Regulations. A management plan for a Commonwealth reserve must not be inconsistent with the principles for the IUCN category to which the reserve (or a zone of the reserve) is assigned. The principles for the IUCN category national park are:
- The reserve or zone should be protected and managed to preserve its natural condition according to the following principles.
- Natural and scenic areas of national and international significance should be protected for spiritual, scientific, educational, recreational or tourist purposes.
- Representative examples of physiographic regions, biotic communities, genetic resources, and native species should be perpetuated in as natural a state as possible to provide ecological stability and diversity.
- Visitor use should be managed for inspirational, educational, cultural and recreational purposes at a level that will maintain the reserve or zone in a natural or near natural state.
- Management should seek to ensure that exploitation or occupation inconsistent with these principles does not occur.
- Respect should be maintained for the ecological, geomorphologic, sacred and aesthetic attributes for which the reserve or zone was assigned to this category.
- The needs of indigenous people should be taken into account, including subsistence resource use, to the extent that they do not conflict with these principles.
- The aspirations of traditional owners of land within the reserve or zone, their continuing land management practices, the protection and maintenance of cultural heritage and the benefit the traditional owners derive from enterprises, established in the reserve or zone, consistent with these principles should be recognised and taken into account.
9. CONSERVATION SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PARK
There are many reasons why the Park is important to conservation. Perhaps its most outstanding feature is that it is a nearly intact ecosystem – a rare attribute of any protected area anywhere in the world. It is not wholly intact because approximately 25% of the forest has been destroyed and a number of pest animals and plants are well established. However, major ecological processes have so far been comparatively unaffected by these changes.
The Park encloses the entire range of at least 24 endemic species, more than any other Australian protected area. It is part of the network of habitats of migratory species that Australia must protect under international agreements such as the Japan-Australia Migratory Bird Agreement (JAMBA) and the China-Australia Migratory Bird Agreement (CAMBA).
Most other islands in the Indian Ocean and the South East Asia region are losing habitat to expanding human populations, so that Christmas Island, by and large, assumes an ever-increasing importance. For example the Park contains the last remaining nesting habitat of the Abbott’s Booby. The Park also supports the world’s largest remaining robber crab population and probably contains the largest and most diverse land crab community anywhere.
The Park provides exceptional opportunities for ecological study, as islands have always played an important role in the development of ecological theory. By regarding islands as habitats of various sizes separated from each other over a wide range of distances, ecologists have gained much insight into the basic processes of dispersal, immigration, competition, adaptation, predation and extinction. These are major factors affecting the distribution and abundance of plants and animals.
Christmas Island provides an invaluable opportunity to observe the long-term processes of immigration, colonisation and extinction, and how these events interact to influence the density of species. Two recent extinctions (the native rats) – and possibly a third (the shrew) – and three recent, successful immigrations and colonisations (the Kestrel, White-faced Heron and the White-breasted Water Hen) have occurred.
The Park is readily accessible and visitors can observe the classic patterns of island colonisation, and their evolutionary implications. The Park presents opportunities for eco-tourism because of its natural values, including its unique rainforest, the variety and number of seabirds, the spectacular red crab migration and the rugged land and seascapes.
There has been some local community interest in pursuing World Heritage listing for Christmas Island. World Heritage listing is supported by the Christmas Island Tourism Association (CITA) which is progressing the concept by seeking information from scientists familiar with the island, and consulting with Environment Australia. Some former residents of the island are also promoting World Heritage listing.
APPENDIX 1 — CHRISTMAS ISLAND NATIVE PLANTS
Although not a complete list of the plant species of the island, this listing provides the scientific names as well as common names and locally used Malay names of plants mentioned in the text. Not all species have a common name or Malay name.
Scientific name Common name Malay name
Abutilon listeri lantern flower Acronychia trifoliolata Aspen kayu jerouk Arenga listeri arenga palm, Christmas Island palm Argusia argentea Asplenium listeri spleenwort Asystasia alba Bauhinia binata butterfly-leaf tree Barringtonia racemosa putat Berrya cordifolia Brachypeza archytas Bruguiera gymnorhiza orange mangrove tumu merah Bruguiera sexangula mangrove tumu barau Calophyllum inophyllum Alexandrian laurel nyamplon, bintangor laut, penanga laut Celtis timorensis stinkwood kayu busok Claoxylon indicum Clerodendron inerme sorcerer’s flower Colubrina pendunculata Commicarpus chinensis gum fruit Cryptocarya nitens medang Cycas rumphii cycad Cynometra ramiflora wrinklepod mangrove puki anjing Dendrocnide peltata stinging tree pokok jeratang var. murrayana Dicliptera maclearii Dioscorea bulbifera yam Dysoxylum gaudichaudianum Entada rheedii matchbox bean Erythrina variegata coral tree dedap kayu, dedap Ficus microcarpa banyan jejawi Flickingera nativitatas Grewia insularis Gyrocarpus americanus propeller tree kayu kolek Heritiera littoralis looking glass mangrove dungun
APPENDIX 1 CONTINUED
Scientific name Common name Malay name
Hernandia ovigera lantern fruit, hearse tree buah keras laut Hibiscus tiliaceus cottonwood, sea hibiscus baru-baru Hoya aldrichii hoya vine Ischaemum muticum awnless duck beak Ischaemum nativitatis Christmas Island duck beak Inocarpus fagifer Tahitian chestnut gatet Kleinhovia hospita laban, temahau Leea angulata Macaranga tanarius hairy mahang kayu merah, mahang Maclura cochinchinensis var. conchinchinensis Melochia umbellata Nephrolepsis multiflora scruffy sword fern Ochrosia ackeringae Ophioglossum reticulatum adder’s tongue fern Pandanus elatus pandanus, screw pine Pandan Pandanus christmatensis pandanus, screw pine Pandan Pemphis acidula pemphis Mentigi, kayu burong Peperomia rossii Phreatia listeri Pisonia grandis Cabbage tree ampol Pisonia umbellifera bird lime tree jamboe Planchonella nitida nyatoh Pongamia pinata Indian beach karanda Psilotum nudum Scaevola taccada cabbage tree kayu kankong Spondias cytherea great hog plum kedondong Sporobolus virginicus salt couch or coastal rat-tail grass Syzygium nervosum gowok, kelat Terminalia catappa sea almond, Indian almond ketapang Tristiropsis acutangula Vitis flexuosa Zehneria alba Zeuxine exilis
APPENDIX 2 — CHRISTMAS ISLAND VERTEBRATES
(e) = species and subspecies endemic to the island.
Native mammals
Murray’s pipistrelle bat (e) Pipistrellus murrayi Christmas Island flying fox (e) Pteropus melanotus natalis Christmas Island shrew (e ?) Crocidura attenuata trichura Maclears rat (e,x) Rattus macleari bulldog rat (e,x) Rattus nativitatus [Note: (x) = have become extinct since settlement. The status of the shrew needs to be confirmed.]
Introduced mammals
black rat (or ship rat) Rattus rattus house mouse Mus musculus domestic cat Felis catus [Note: There are doubtful references to the Pacific rat (Rattus exulans) and the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) but these rodents have never been reliably observed.]
Native reptiles
giant gecko (e) Cyrtodactylus sp. nov. Christmas Island Gecko or tree gecko (e) Lepidodactylus listeri blue-tailed skink (e) Cryptoblepharus egeriae forest skink (e) Emoia nativitatis foreshore skink Emoia atrocostata pink blind snake (e) Ramphotyphlops exocoeti1
Introduced reptiles
south east Asian wolf snake Lycodon aulicus capucinus black blind snake Ramphotyphlops braminus1 grass skink Lygosoma bowringii Asian house gecko Gehyra mutilata barking gecko Hemidactylus frenatus
[1 The blind snakes are provisionally assigned to Ramphotyphlops pending revision of this genus].
Native land and shore birds
Christmas Island Imperial Pigeon (e) Ducula whartoni Christmas Island Emerald Dove (e) Chalcophaps indica natalis Christmas Island Hawk-owl (e) Ninox natalis Christmas Island Goshawk (e) Accipiter fasciatus natalis Christmas Island Glossy Cave Swiftlet (e) Collocalia esculenta natalis Christmas Island Thrush (e) Turdus poliocephalus erythropleurus Christmas Island White-eye (e) Zosterops natalis Eastern Reef Egret Egretta sacra White Faced Heron Ardea novaehollandae White-breasted Water Hen Amaurornis phoenicurus Australian Kestrel Falco cenchroides
Introduced land birds
Java Sparrow Padda oryzivora Tree Sparrow Passer montanus Feral Domestic Chicken Gallus domesticus
Native sea birds
Abbott’s Booby (e) Papasula abbotti Brown Booby Sula leucogaster plotus Red-footed Booby Sula sula rubripes Christmas Island Frigatebird (e) Fregata andrewsi Great Frigatebird Fregata minor minor
Least Frigatebird Fregata ariel Common Noddy Anous stolidus pileatus Red-tailed Topicbird or Silver Bosun Phaethon rubricauda westralis White-tailed Tropicbird or Golden Bosun (e) Phaethon lepturus fulvus
APPENDIX 3 — Native species listed under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (at February 2002)
Plants
| - | Tectaria devexa var. minor | E |
| - | Carmona retusa | V |
Mammals
| Murray’s pipistrelle bat (e) | Pipistrellus murrayi | E |
| Christmas Island shrew (e) | Crocidura attenuata trichura | E |
| Maclears rat (e) | Rattus macleari | X |
| Bulldog rat (e) | Rattus nativitatus | X |
[Note: The status of the shrew needs to be confirmed.]
Reptiles
| Pink blind snake (e) | Ramphotyphlops exocoeti | V |
| Green turtle | Chelonia mydas | V |
| Hawksbill turtle | Eretmochelys imbricata | V |
| Christmas Island gecko | Lepidodactylus listeri | V |
Land and shore birds
| Christmas Island Hawk-owl (e) | Ninox natalis | V | | J |
|---|
| Eastern Reef Egret | Egretta sacra | | M | |
| Christmas Island Goshawk (e) | Accipiter fasciatus natalis | E | MF | |
| Australian Kestrel | Falco cenchroides | | MF | |
Sea birds
| Abbott’s Booby (e) | Papasula abbotti | E | M | S | J |
|---|
| Brown Booby | Sula leucogaster plotus | | M | S | C J |
| Red-footed Booby | Sula sula rubripes | | M | S | C J |
| Christmas Island Frigatebird (e) | Fregata andrewsi | V | M | S | C J |
| Great Frigatebird | Fregata minor minor | | M | S | C J |
| Least Frigatebird | Fregata ariel | | | | C J |
| Common Noddy | Anous stolidus pileatus | | M | S | |
| Red-tailed Tropicbird or Silver Bosun | Phaethon rubricauda westralis | | | S | |
| White-tailed Tropicbird or Golden Bosun (e) | Phaethon lepturus fulvus | | M | S | C J |
Vagrants and migrant birds (incomplete list)
| Fork Tailed Swift | Apus pacificus | | C J |
|---|
| Ruddy Turnstone | Arenaria interpres | M | C J |
| Red-necked Stint | Calidris ruficollis | M | C J |
| Little Ringed Plover | Charadrius dubius | M | C |
| Red-capped/Kentish Plover | Charadrius spp. | MF | |
| Oriental Plover | Charadrius veredus | MF | |
| snipe spp. | Gallinago spp. | MF | C J |
| Oriental Pratincole | Glareola maldivarum | | C J |
| Black-winged Stilt | Himantopus himantopus | MF | |
| Yellow Bittern | Ixobrychus sinensis | | C |
| Yellow Wagtail | Motacilla flava | | CJ |
| Little Curlew | Numenius minutus | MF | C |
| Matsudaira’s Storm-petrel | Oceanodroma matsudairae | S | |
| Australian Pelican | Pelicanus conspicillatus | S | |
| Great Cormorant | Phalacrocorax carbo | S | |
| Pacific Golden Plover | Pluvialis fulva | MF | |
| Grey Plover | Pluvialis squatarola | MF | CJ |
| Wedge-tailed Shearwater | Puffinus pacificus | | J |
| Wood Sandpiper | Tringa glareola | MF | CJ |
| Common Greenshank | Tringa nebularia | MF | CJ |
| Marsh Sandpiper | Tringa stagnatilis | MF | CJ |
Additional marine species
In addition to the above, all species in the families Hydrophiidae (sea-snakes), Laticaudidae (sea-snakes), Cheloniidae (marine turtles), Syngnathidae (seahorses, sea-dragons and pipefish), and the species Dermochelys coriacea (leatherback turtles).
Key to codes
(e) = species and subspecies endemic to the island.
X Listed under the EPBC Act as Extinct
E Listed under the EPBC Act as Endangered
V Listed under the EPBC Act as Vulnerable
M Listed under the EPBC Act as migratory species (listed under the Bonn Convention, and/or CAMBA and/or JAMBA)
MF Within a family listed under the EPBC Act as migratory (listed under the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals [Bonn Convention])
S Listed marine species under the EPBC Act
C Listed under the Agreement between the Government of Australia and the Government of the People's Republic of China for the Protection of Migratory Birds and their Environment (CAMBA).
J Listed under the Agreement between the Government of Australia and the Government of Japan for the Protection of Migratory Birds and Birds in Danger of Extinction and their Environment (JAMBA)
APPENDIX 4 — NATIVE LAND AND SHORELINE CRABS
red crab (e) Gecarcoidea natalis purple crab Gecarcoidea lalandii blue crab Cardisoma hirtipes robber crab Birgus latro little nipper Geograpsus grayi yellow nipper Geograpsus crinipes red nipper Geograpsus stormi Jackson’s crab* Sesarma jacksoni yellow-eyed crab Sesarma obtusifrons white stripe crab Labuanium rotundatum grapsus Grapsus tenuicrustatus mottled crab Metasesarma rousseauxi freshwater crab Ptychognathus pusillus red hermit crab Coenobita perlata tawny hermit crab Coenobita rugosa purple hermit crab Coenobita brevimana horn-eyed ghost crab Ocypode ceratophthalma smooth-handed ghost crab Ocypode cordimana sandy rubble crab Cyclograpsus integer brown crab Epigrapsus politus
[Note: *Jackson’s crab has not been recorded elsewhere and may be endemic.]
APPENDIX 5 — FISHES OF CHRISTMAS ISLAND
There are many species of fish in and around the waters of Christmas Island. This list contains only those species of fish considered to be of interest to local people. A full list of Christmas Island fish species can be found in Allen and Steene (1988).
| English | Malay | FAMILY NAME |
| common name | common name | Scientific name |
| | | CACHARHINIDAE |
| silvertip shark | ikan yu | Carcharhinus albimarginatus |
| grey whaler shark | ikan yu | Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos |
| oceanic whitetip shark | ikan yu | Carcharhinus maou |
| tiger shark | ikan yu | Galeocerdo cuvieri |
| reef whitetip shark | ikan yu | Triaenodon obesus |
| | | SPHYRNIDAE |
| hammerhead shark | yu hamar | Sphyrna lewini |
| | | EXOCOETIDAE |
| spotwing flyingfish | ikan terbang | Cypselurus poecilopterus |
| | | BELONIDAE |
| longtom | ikan todak | Platybelone argalus |
| | | SERRANIDAE |
| redmouth groper | | Aethaloperca rogaa |
| whitelined cod | kerapu cicak | Anyperodon leucogrammicus |
| peacock cod | kerapu hitam | Cephalopholis argus |
| orange cod | kerapu nonya | Cephalopholis analis |
| Japanese cod | | Cephalopholis igarashiensis |
| coral cod | kerapu bintang | Cephalopholis miniatus |
| sixband cod | kerapu bintang | Cephalopholis sexamaculatus |
| strawberry cod | kerapu nonya | Cephalopholis spiloparaea |
| blacktipped cod | | Epinephelus fasciatus |
| wirenetting cod | kerapu cicak | Epinephelus hexagonatus |
| honeycomb cod | kerapu cicak | Epinephelus merra |
| comet cod | kerapu morrhua | Epinephelus morrhua |
| brownback cod | | Epinephelus retouti |
| spotty cod | kerapu cicak | Epinephelus spilotoceps |
| reef cod | kerapu cicak | Epinephelus tauvina |
| rededged cod | | Gracila albomarginata |
| harlequin cod | | Gracila polleni |
| deepsea cod | | Saloptia powelli |
| lunartailed cod | kerapu bronok | Variola louti |
| | | CORYPHAENDIDAE |
| dolphinfish | ikan lumadang | Coryphaena hippurus |
| | | CARANGIDAE |
| plumed trevally | | Alectis indicus |
| lowly trevally | ikan puteh | Caranx ignobilis |
| black trevally | ikan puteh bongkok | Caranx lugubris |
| bluefin trevally | ikan puteh biru | Caranx melampygus |
| great trevally | ikan puteh | Caranx sexfasciatus |
| tille trevally | ikan puteh kayu | Caranx tille |
| island trevally | ikan coco | Carangoides orthogrammus |
| mackeral scad | bengol | Decapterus macarellus |
| rainbow runner | salaman | Elegatis bipinnulata |
| golden trevally | ikan puteh | Gnathanodon speciosus |
| queenfish | ikan talang | Scomberoides lysan |
| blackspotted swallowtail | ikan cermin | Trachinotus bailloni |
| | | LUTJANIDAE |
| smalltoothed jobfish | salaman karang | Aphareus furcatus |
| green jobfish | salaman karang | Aprion virescens |
| ruby snapper | salaman merah | Etelis coruscans |
| pale snapper | salaman merah | Etelis radiosus |
| red bass | ikan merah besar | Lutjanus bohar |
| blackspot snapper | ikan tanther | Lutjanus fulviflamma |
| yellow-margined seaperch | | Lutjanus fulvus |
| paddletail | ikan merah ayer dalam | Lutjanus gibbus |
| bluestripe snapper | ikan nonya | Lutjanus kasmira |
| blubberlip snapper | | Lutjanus rivulatus |
| midnight snapper | tai tow soong | Macolor macularis |
| black and white snapper | tai tow soong | Macolor niger |
| blue snapper | ikan lala ayer dalam | Paracaesio sordidus |
| goldflag jobfish | salaman karang kuning | Pristipomoides auricilla |
| oblique banded snapper | ikan krisi | Pristipomoides zonatus |
| | | HAEMULIDAE |
| dusky sweetlips | | Plectorhinchus gibbosus |
| oriental sweetlips | kerapu belang | Plectorhinchus orientalis |
| | | LETHRINIDAE |
| large-eyed seabream | ikan gigi orang | Monotaxis grandoculis |
| | | MULLIDAE |
| pallid goatfish | ikan jangut kuning | Mulliodes flavolineatus |
| yellowstripe goatfish | ikan jagut kuning | Mulliodes vanicolensis |
| dot and dash goatfish | ikan jangut | Parupeneus barberinus |
| doublebar goatfish | ikan jangut belang | Parupeneus bifasciatus |
| oldsaddle goatfish | ikan jangut | Parupeneus cyclostomus |
| banded goatfish | ikan jangut | Parupeneus multifasciatus |
| | | SPHYRAENIDAE |
| great barracuda | ikan alo alo | Sphyraena barracuda |
| | | LABRIDAE |
| giant Maori wrasse | ikan becok | Cheilinus undulatus |
| humphead wrasse | ikan becok | Coris aygula |
| thicklip wrasse | ikan becok | Hemigymnus melapterus |
| surge wrasse | ikan lecok lecok | Thalassoma purpureum |
| peacock wrasse | ikan becok | Xyrichthys pavo |
| | | GEMPYLIDAE |
| conejo | | Promethichthys promoetheus |
| | | SCOMBRIDAE |
| wahoo | | Acanthocybium solandri |
| mackeral tuna | | Euthynnus affinis |
| dogtooth tuna | | Gymnosarda unicolor |
| skipjack tuna | | Katsuwonis pelamis |
| yellowfin tuna | | Thunnus albacares |
| | | ISTIOPHORIDAE |
| sailfish | | Istiophorus platypterus |
| blue marlin | | Makaira mazara |
| striped marlin | | Tetrapurus audax |
CHRISTMAS ISLAND
NATIONAL PARK
MANAGEMENT PLAN
PART 2 - CHRISTMAS ISLAND NATIONAL PARK
MANAGEMENT PLAN
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTORY PROVISIONS
-
Citation
-
Commencement and termination
-
Interpretation
-
Legislative Context of the Plan................................................
4.1. IUCN Category........................................................
- Management mechanism
5.1 Role and function of the Director............................................
5.2 Christmas Island National Park Advisory Committee (CINPAC).....................
5.3 Environmental assessment and approval.......................................
5.4 Operational Plans and Management Strategies...................................
5.5 Operations or activities that may be carried out in the Park..........................
5.6 Operations or activites that are prohibited or regulated in the Park....................
- Technical audit
OBJECTIVES AND PRESCRIBED MANAGEMENT ACTIONS
- Terrestrial Vegetation
7.1 Background...........................................................
7.2 Objectives............................................................
7.3 Prescriptions...........................................................
- Terrestrial and Anchialine Animals
8.1 Background...........................................................
8.2 Objectives............................................................
8.3 Prescriptions...........................................................
- Marine Zone
9.1 Background...........................................................
9.2 Objectives............................................................
9.3 Prescriptions...........................................................
- Access
10.1 Background..........................................................
10.2 Objectives............................................................
10.3 Prescriptions..........................................................
- Tourism
11.1 Background..........................................................
11.2 Objectives............................................................
11.3 Prescriptions..........................................................