Alphapharm Pty Ltd v SmithKline v Beecham [1997] FCA 797 | Case summary

IN THE FEDERAL COURT OF AUSTRALIA ) ) NEW SOUTH WALES DISTRICT REGISTRY ) No. NG6000 of 1996 ) GENERAL DIVISION ) ON APPEAL FROM A JUDGE OF THE FEDERAL COURT OF AUSTRALIA BETWEEN: BYRON ENVIRONMENT CENTRE INCORPORATED Applicant AND: THE ARAKWAL PEOPLE First Respondent BYRON SHIRE COUNCIL Second Respondent CAPE BYRON HEADLAND RESERVE TRUST Third Respondent DETALA PTY LTD Fourth Respondent FEROS VILLAGE BOARD OF MANAGEMENT Fifth Respondent A.S. MALIN (A MALE) Sixth Respondent NSW ABORIGINAL LANDS COUNCIL Seventh Respondent NSW MINISTER FOR LAND AND WATER CONSERVATION Eighth Respondent THE AUSTRALIAN ORTHODOX HOME FOR THE AGED ASSOCIATION INC Ninth Respondent COURT: BLACK CJ, LOCKHART and MERKEL JJ. PLACE: SYDNEY DATE: 20 AUGUST 1997 REASONS FOR JUDGMENT LOCKHART J. This is an appeal from a decision of the National Native Title Tribunal ('the Tribunal') that the applicant, Byron Environment Centre Incorporated, does not have the necessary standing to be a party in relation to a native title application concerning land in and around Byron Bay in northern New South Wales ('the claimed land'). The relevant native title application was lodged, pursuant to s 13(1) of the Native Title Act 1993 ('the Act'), on 21 December 1994 (on one view of the evidence the date of lodgement was 22 December; but nothing turns on this) by three people claiming to hold native title with other members of the Arakwal people to the claimed land. On 20 September 1995 the native title application was accepted by the Tribunal pursuant to s 63(1) of the Act. Any entitlement of the applicant to be a party to the native title application arises from s 68(2)(a) of the Act which provides that a person is a party to such application if: 'the person's interests may be affected by a determination in relation to the application.' By letter dated 4 December 1995 from the applicant to the National Native Title Tribunal ('the Tribunal') the applicant sought to become a party to the native title application. On 19 December 1995 the applicant's request was referred by a case manager of the Tribunal to a presidential member of the Tribunal, the Honourable Hal Wootten, pursuant to s 69 of the Act which provides: '69(1) If it is necessary for the purposes of this Division to decide whether the interests of a person may be affected by a determination, that matter is to be decided by the Tribunal and, if the Tribunal decides that the interests of a person may be affected, the decision of the Tribunal is conclusive. (2) For the purposes of making a decision under subsection (1) the Tribunal must be constituted by a presidential member.' The minute from the Case Manager to Mr Wootten, so far as material, reads as follows: 'This is a request to you as a Presidential Member of the National Native Title Tribunal, under s69(1) of the Native Title Act 1993, to decide whether the interests of a person may be affected by a determination. The Byron Environment Centre has applied to be a party to the claimant application by the Arakwal people for Crown land and waters in and around Byron Bay on the north coast of NSW (reference number NC95/1). A copy of the application to be a party is attached. In that application the Incorporated association asserts that it has been actively involved in campaigns to conserve and protect the lands and waters in and around Byron Bay. They have environmental concerns in relation to species diversity, ecological sustainability etc. They seek participation in the negotiation process to maintain the integrity of the land under claim. I draw your attention to paragraph 9.3 of the Tribunal's procedures revised 8 September 1995 and specifically that the procedure provides that the Presidential Member may invite a submission from the applicant to be a party and sets out a timeframe for the decision to be made. There is nothing in the application to be a party that shows the Byron Environment Centre Inc. has an interest as defined by s253 of the Native Title Act 1993 ie; a legal or equitable estate, a right, charge, power or privilege over or in connection with the land or a restriction on the use of the land in question. On that basis I would recommend non-acceptance of their application.' At the foot of the memorandum a note dated 22 December 1995 and signed by Mr Wootten appears in these terms: '... the Byron Bay Environment Centre does not have interests that may be affected within the meaning of the Native Title Act. J.H. Wootten 22.12.95' On 5 January 1996 the applicant received a letter dated 22 December 1995 from the Tribunal's case manager informing it that its application to become a party had been rejected. On 14 February 1996 the applicant appealed to this Court from the Deputy President's decision pursuant to s 169 of the Act. The notice of appeal was filed beyond the time required by s 169 of the Act; but, on the applicant's application to the Court, which was not opposed by any respondent, the time for appeal was extended by order of the Court. The appeal was heard by a Full Court of the Court pursuant to s 169(5) of the Act. The amended notice of appeal contains five grounds of appeal, only two of which were pressed at the hearing; the others were abandoned. The first and central ground of appeal is whether the Deputy President of the Tribunal erred in concluding that the applicant did not have a sufficient interest to become a party to the proceedings before the Tribunal (ground numbered 1 in the amended notice of appeal). The second ground (ground numbered 4 in the amended notice of appeal) is whether the Deputy President was empowered to deny the status of a party to the applicant where no party to the proceeding had objected to the applicant's entitlement to become a party; so, it was argued, it never became necessary for the Tribunal to exercise the power conferred by s 69(1) on the Deputy President. The first of these two grounds of appeal raises two questions. The first question is one of interpretation of s 68(2)(a) of the Act concerning the meaning of the expression that a person is a party in relation to a native title application if 'the person's interests may be affected' by a determination in relation to the application. If that question is answered in favour of the applicant, the second question, one of fact, arises of whether the applicant is such a person. The applicant making a native title claim is a party in relation to that application (s 68(1)). Section 68(2) provides that another person is a party in relation to the application if: '(a) the person is covered by any of subparagraphs 66(2)(a)(i) to (vi) or the person's interests may be affected by a determination in relation to the application; and (b) the person notifies the Registrar, in writing, within the period specified in the notice under section 66, that the person wants to be a party in relation to the application.' Section 68(2) thus has two limbs, the first of which entitles a person to be a party in relation to a native title application if that person 'is covered by any of subparagraphs 66(2)(a)(i) to (vi)'. Section 66(2) is in the following terms: '66(2) The Registrar is taken to have given notice to all persons whose interests may be affected by a determination in relation to an application if the Registrar: (a) gives notice containing details of the application to: (i) the registered native title claimant (if any) in relation to the area covered by the application; and (ii) the Commonwealth Minister; and (iii) if any of the area covered by the application is within the jurisdictional limits of a State or Territory - the State Minister or Territory Minister for the State or Territory; and (iv) any registered native title body corporate in relation to any of the area covered by the application; and (v) any person who holds a proprietary interest in any of the area covered by the application, being an interest that is registered in a register of interests in relation to land or waters maintained by the Commonwealth, a State or a Territory; and (vi) any representative Aboriginal/Torres Strait Islander body for any of the area covered by the application; and (b) notifies the public in the determined way of the application.' The applicant does not fall within any of the subparagraphs (i) to (vi); so the question is whether the second disjunctive limb of s 68(2)(a) brings the applicant within its scope as a person 'whose interests may be affected by a determination in relation to the application.' The argument before us centred on the question whether the word 'interests' in s 68(2)(a) of the Act bears the same meaning as it does in s 253 (one of the definition sections) where 'interest' is defined in the following terms: '"interest", in relation to land or waters, means: (a) a legal or equitable estate or interest in the land or waters; or (b) any other right (including a right under an option and a right of redemption), charge, power or privilege over, or in connection with: (i) the land or waters; or (ii) an estate or interest in the land or waters; or (c) a restriction on the use of the land or waters, whether or not annexed to other land or waters;' The presidential member appears to have taken the view that the words 'the person's interests' in s 68(2)(a) were restricted to 'interests' as defined by s 253. Importantly, the definition of 'interest' in s 253 is expressed to be 'in relation to land or waters'. The definition that follows is in wide terms; in particular where it refers in paragraph (b) to any other right (i.e. other than a legal or equitable estate or interest in the land or waters), including a right under an option and a right of redemption; and a charge, power or privilege over, or in connection with the land or waters or an estate or interest in the land or waters; or a restriction on the use of the land or waters, whether or not annexed to other land or waters. The words 'over' and 'in connection with' are words of wide import. Nevertheless, in my opinion, the word 'interest' in s 253 is used throughout the definition to convey some form of proprietary or contractual right, power or privilege concerning the land or waters. In the matter of an application for a native title determination by the Gunai people (Application No VC95/1, unreported) French J, President of the Tribunal, said at p 5: 'It is questionable, although arguable, whether the recreational use of land by a member of the public who has no legal interest in it constitutes the exercise of a right of free access within the meaning of the definition in s 253.' I agree with this statement by his Honour; but prefer to leave the question of the ultimate scope of the definition of 'interest' in relation to land or waters in s 253(b) to be decided in another case. I have in mind, for example (there are many examples), a person who frequently walks through Crown land to the beach and has done so, like many others, for a considerable number of years; but has no legal or equitable right (at any rate no expressly granted right) to do so. A perusal of the Act demonstrates that where the Parliament has intended the word 'interest' to be used in relation to 'land or waters' it has said so in terms. This therefore calls for caution in assuming that the word 'interest' where appearing in s 68(2)(a) bears the meaning attributed to it in s 253. A number of sections of the Act specifically refer to the expression 'interest in relation to land or waters': ss 14(2)(b), 19(2)(b), 25(1), 26(2)(d), 62(1)(b), 108(3)(a), 225(b)(iv), 226(2)(c), 228(4)(c) and 228(6)(a) and (b). Some sections, namely, ss 66(1)(a), 66(2), 68(2)(a), 69(1), 167(4), 168(2)(c) and 169(3), refer to a person's interests, broadly in the context of standing concerning native title rights and interests, but not in conjunction with the phrase 'in relation to land or waters'. Other sections refer to 'interest' or 'interests' in different contexts: for example; s 13(5)(b) 'the interests of justice' and s 39(1)(e) 'any public interest'. Applications for native title are made initially to the Native Title Registrar (s. 61(1)). Section 63 provides that if various requirements are met (in particular those specified in s 62) the Registrar must accept an application for a native title determination by persons claiming to hold the title unless the Registrar is of the opinion that the application is frivolous or vexatious or that a prima facie case cannot be made out. In such case, the application must be referred to a presidential member who, if he agrees with the Registrar, must give the applicant an opportunity to show that the application should be registered. Where an application is accepted, the Registrar is obliged to give notice to the range of persons mentioned in s 66, to which reference was made earlier. Where, following the giving of such notice, the Registrar has accepted an application for native title determination under s 63 that is unopposed, the Tribunal may make a determination in or consistent with the terms sought by the applicant when it is satisfied that the applicant has made out a prima facie case for a determination in those terms and the Tribunal considers the determination to be just and equitable in all the circumstances (s 70). An important provision is s 70(2) which provides that, for the purposes of s 70, an application is unopposed if at the end of a particular period the only party is the applicant or each party notifies the Tribunal in writing that he or she does not oppose the application (or the application is taken to be unopposed for the purposes of s 70 by s 67 which is irrelevant in this case). If, at the end of the period specified in the notice under s 66, the parties advise the Tribunal that they have reached agreement as to the terms of the determination of the Tribunal in relation to the application; and the terms of the agreement in writing signed by or on behalf of the parties are given to the Tribunal; and the Tribunal is satisfied that the determination in or consistent with those terms would be within the power of the Tribunal and would be appropriate in the circumstances, the Tribunal must make a determination in accordance with or consistent with those terms (s 71). If, however, the Tribunal does not make a determination under s 70 or s 71, the President must direct a mediation conference to be held of the parties or their representatives pursuant to s 72. If at the end of such conference the parties have reached agreement and the terms of the agreement in writing signed by or on behalf of the parties are given to the Tribunal and it is satisfied that a determination in or consistent with those terms would be within the Tribunal's powers and would be appropriate in the circumstances, the Tribunal must make a determination in or consistent with those terms (s 73). If mediation is not successful, the Registrar must lodge the application to the Federal Court for its decision under s 74. Thus, if a person is a party to the application but opposes it, the matter must come before the Federal Court pursuant to s 74. A party therefore has within his, her or its power the capacity to prevent successful mediation and to in effect require the matter to be brought before the Federal Court. Although a party thus has this power, it must be borne in mind that a native title application by the nature of native title and of the claim itself, may be far reaching and affect multifarious interests of many persons. A determination of native title may include a determination about whether native title rights and interests confer possession, occupation and use and enjoyment of the land or waters on its holders to the exclusion of everybody else (s 225(b)(ii)). Thus a wide range of persons may be affected by the determination especially if exclusive rights are conferred upon the successful claimants for native title. Rights and interests of native title holders are quite different from proprietary rights and interests recognized at common law and equity. Indeed, many rights and interests of native title holders are not proprietary at all. Brennan J described native title in Mabo v Queensland (No 2) (1992) 175 CLR 1 at 61 in these terms: 'Secondly, native title, being recognized by the common law (though not as a common law tenure), may be protected by such legal or equitable remedies as are appropriate to the particular rights and interests established by the evidence, whether proprietary or personal or usufructuary in nature and whether possessed by a community, a group or an individual. The incidents of a particular native title relating to inheritance, the transmission or acquisition of rights and interests on death or marriage, the transfer of rights and interests in land and the grouping of persons to possess rights and interests in land are matters to be determined by the laws and customs of the indigenous inhabitants, provided those laws and customs are not so repugnant to natural justice, equity and good conscience that judicial sanctions under the new regime must be withheld.' See also the analysis of common law native titleby Deane and Gaudron JJ at 86-95. When enacting the Act (including ss 66 and 68) the Parliament recognized that a determination of native title may involve recognition of native title rights or interests which are personal and not proprietary; and yet be likely to affect interests of persons, other than the native title holder. Native title to land, its incidents and the persons entitled thereto, are ascertained according to the laws and customs of the indigenous people who, by those laws and customs, have a connection with the land. Native title has its origins in and is given its content by the traditional laws acknowledged by, and the traditional customs observed by, the indigenous inhabitants of the territory. It may not be alienated under the common law: Pareroultja v Tickner (1993) 42 FCR 32 per Lockhart J at 39. The objects of the Act include the achievement of what is described as reconciliation between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal Australians. The preamble to the Act states: 'A special procedure needs to be available for the just and proper ascertainment of native title rights and interests which will ensure that, if possible, this is done by reconciliation, and, if not, in a manner that has due regard to their unique character.' Also, inthe final paragraph of the preamble the following appears: 'The law, together with initiatives announced at the time of its introduction and others agreed on by the Parliament from time to time, is intended ... to be a special measure for the advancement and protection of Aboriginal peoples and Torres Strait Islanders, and is intended to further advance the process of reconciliation among all Australians.' Various provisions of the Act are designed to achieve reconciliation through mediation processes: for example, s 72. Also, as a native title application proceeds through the Tribunal and its processes of mediation with a view to encouraging discussion between the claimants and interested persons, it is natural that widely framed claims may be honed down to what the applicants really want. Persons who may not have a right or interest in the land in a proprietary sense, but nevertheless have an interest in a broader sense, will be entitled to have a say in the matter and be able to negotiate some arrangement to accommodate their interests if they are parties to the application, which is the question arising in this case. To shut people out from participating in a claim because they do not have a proprietary interest in the land or waters could operate to create ill feelings and achieve antagonism, not reconciliation. This question of determining whether a person is one whose 'interests may be affected by determination in relation to the application' within the meaning of s 68(2)(a) has been considered before. In Members of the Yorta Yorta Aboriginal Community v The State of Victoria (1996) 1 AILR 402 Olney J heard an application for determination of native title under the Act. A mediation conference was held pursuant to s 72 of the Act; but it failed, so the matter came before this Court pursuant to s 84(2) of the Act which permits a person to seek leave of the Court to be joined as a party to the proceedings 'if the person's interests are affected by the matter or may be affected by a determination in the proceeding'. His Honour held that despite the slight difference in form between ss 84(2) and 68(2)(a) the same question of construction was raised. His Honour concluded that the definition of 'interest' in s 253 did not govern the definition of the expression 'the person's interests may be affected' by a determination in relation to the application under s 68(2); and that a person does not have to establish an interest in relation to land or waters as defined in s 253 in order to be granted leave to be joined as a party pursuant to s 84(2) (a fortiori therefore on his Honour's reasoning process, s 68(2)). His Honour reached his conclusion after considering the following matters:- First, the fact that s 84(2) made no reference to an interest in relation to land or waters; but specifically identified the relevant interests as those of the person concerned without any qualification. He referred, as I have done, to sections in the Act where the Parliament has chosen to use the term 'interests in relation to land or waters'. Secondly, determination of native title may include a determination as to whether the native title rights and interests confer rights concerning the use and enjoyment of the land or waters to the exclusion of other people. Olney J said at 405: 'A person may habitually use and/or enjoy land or waters without necessarily having any right or title to do so (eg by the mere acquiescence or licence of the titleholder) but could be prevented from so doing should it be determined that the native title holders are entitled to the use and enjoyment of the land or waters to the exclusion of all others. As a matter of ordinary language, it can readily be said that the interests of an habitual user of land or waters may be affected if the native title holders insist on exercising exclusive use or enjoyment of the land or waters. This reasoning leads to the conclusion that the legislative intention expressed in subs 84(2) is consistent with the literal meaning of the words used. It will be a question of fact in each case whether or not a person's interests may be affected by a determination of native title. ...' Although his Honour was considering the question whether a person may seek leave of the Federal Court to be joined as a party to proceedings before that Court if the person's interests are affected by the matter or may be affected by a determination in the proceedings under s 84(2), he found that the same considerations govern s 84(2) and s 68(2). In the application involving the Gunai people before French J, to which reference was made earlier, the question of the construction of s 68(2)(a) was squarely raised. I have already cited the passage from page 5 of French J's reasons. His Honour went on to say at page 6 of his reasons: 'Although I have hitherto taken the same general view as Gray J that the right of a person to be a party depends upon possession of an interest within the meaning of s 253, I am persuaded by the reasoning of Olney J that it is not necessarily so limited but depends upon a broader concept of interest consistent with general rules of standing to be a party in proceedings in the Federal Court.' There is no relevant distinction between the provisions of s 84 and the second limb of s 68(2)(a) of the Act. It would be remarkable if there were. For if there were, persons could be refused recognition as parties to an application pending in the Tribunal, but accorded recognition after the matter had been referred to the Federal Court.' Gray J sitting as a presidential member of the Tribunal in the Yorta Yorta matter had declined to recognize the Victorian Field and Game Association as a party for the purposes of s 68. The matter came before his Honour because of the mediation conference required by s 72 of the Act. The Victorian Field and Game Association applied to be joined as parties to the mediation. Gray J rejected the Association's application to be accepted as a party to the mediation on the basis that it was not a party whose interests were affected by the determination; and his Honour applied the definition in s 253. I agree with French J and Olney J about the relation between ss 68(2)(a) and 84 of the Act. In my opinion their Honours correctly concluded that a person may be joined as a party to a proceeding in the Federal Court under s 84(2) and as a party to the application for native title under s 68(2)(a) if that person does not have an interest in relation to land or waters as defined in s 253. The persons and organizations who sought to be parties in the Gunai application before French J included a resident of Lake Tyers Beach: 'who frequently enjoys walking along the beaches, swimming and fishing in the waters off the Ninety Mile Beach and also in Lake Tyers and its various creeks and inlets. He is concerned that if the claim succeeds it will restrict the free and unrestricted access which he presently enjoys.' Also included were the Lake Tyers Beach Sports and Angling Club which comprises: 'over 65 members who use the waters and surrounding areas of Lake Tyers daily for recreational fishing. Other members use waterways and surrounding areas for other recreational purposes including water skiing, canoeing, swimming, hunting and sailing. All of these activities are presently enjoyed without cost or restriction.' French J determined that each of the persons and organizations seeking the status of parties were entitled to it. Although Australian Conservation Foundation Inc v The Commonwealth (1980) 146 CLR493 involved a different statutory regime to the determination of native title claims under the Act, the observations of the High Court are helpful in this case. Gibbs J said at 530-1: 'I would not deny that a person might have a special interest in the preservation of a particular environment. However, an interest, for present purposes, does not mean a mere intellectual or emotional concern. A person is not interested within the meaning of the rule, unless he is likely to gain some advantage, other than the satisfaction of righting a wrong, upholding a principle or winning a contest, if his action succeeds or to suffer some disadvantage, other than a sense of grievance or a debt for costs, if his action fails. A belief, however strongly felt, that the law generally, or a particular law, should be observed, or that conduct of a particular kind should be prevented, does not suffice to give its possessor locus standi. If that were not so, the rule requiring special interest would be meaningless. Any plaintiff who felt strongly enough to bring an action could maintain it.' Stephen J at 539 and Mason J at 548 adopted basically the same approach. See also Onus v Alcoa of Australia Limited (1981) 149 CLR 27; Right to Life Association (NSW) Inc v Secretary, Department of Human Services and Health (1995) 56 FCR 50 per Lockhart J at 63-69, Beaumont J at 80-83 and Gummow J at 83-85. It is well established that determinations of questions of standing in public interest proceedings should not be approached in a rigid or inflexible manner. Expressions such as persons whose 'interests may be affected' or persons 'interested' or persons 'aggrieved' or like words derive their meaning and take their colour from the context in which they appear and in the light of the particular statute concerned. Australian courts have shown an increasing tendency, though not always consistent, to construe expressions of this kind liberally: Right to Life Association (NSW) Inc at 64-65. These principles are applicable to questions of standing in public interest proceedings, and though not directly in point when questions of standing arise in proceedings under the Act, nevertheless provide a useful guide. The meaning of the expression with which this case is concerned ('the person's interests may be affected by a determination in relation to the application') is not encased in technical rules. No narrow construction of the expression that a person is a party in relation to a native title application if 'the person's interests may be affected' by a determination in relation to the application is called for. Doubtless a person who has an interest in the sense defined by s 253, that is a form of proprietary interest or interest derived from contract, will be entitled to be an applicant under s 68(2)(a). But, the class of persons is wider than that. It is, I think, impossible and unwise to attempt to define that class in any definitive sense; it will depend on the facts and circumstances of each case. However, the person's interest must not be remote, indirect or fanciful. The interest must be above that of an ordinary member of the public, and must be not that of a mere intermeddler or busybody. The person must have some interest that may be affected by the native title determination. The persons who sought the status of parties before French J in the Gunai application provide a good example of persons with a relevant interest for the purposes of s 68(2)(a). If it be said that this is too broad an analysis and that the floodgates will open, then I must say that over the past eighteen years on the Bench of this Court I have never seen the floodgates open in any matter, despite dire predictions to the contrary. In my opinion, a person need not have an interest in the sense envisaged by s 253 to come within the definition of a person whose interest may be affected by the native title determination under s 68(2)(a); the latter is a broader consideration. Reliance was placed by counsel for the New South Wales Aboriginal Land Council (the seventh respondent) upon the terms of ss 62 and 66 in aid of the contention that the applicant lacked standing in this matter and that the definition of 'interest' in s 253 applied. Section 62 reads as follows: '62(1) A native title determination application by a person or persons claiming to hold the native title in relation to an area must: (a) be accompanied by an affidavit sworn by the applicant that the applicant: (i) believes that native title has not been extinguished in relation to any part of the area; and (ii) believes that none of the area is covered by an entry in the National Native Title Register; and (iii) believes that all of the statements made in the application are true; and (b) contain all information known to the applicant about interests in relation to any of the land or waters concerned that are held by persons other than as native title holders; and (c) contain a description of the area over which the native title is claimed; and (d) state the name and address of the person who is to be taken to be the claimant. (2) Any application under section 61 must be accompanied by any prescribed documents and any prescribed fee.' Section 66(1) requires the Registrar, once an application has been accepted under s 63, to give notice of the application: 'to all persons whose interests may be affected by a determination in relation to the application.' Subsection (2) of s 66 is a deeming provision which provides that the Registrar is taken to have given notice to all persons whose interest may be affected by a determination in relation to the application if the Registrar does two things. First, he must give notice containing details of the application to the persons mentioned in subparagraphs (i) to (vi) (which I recited earlier); secondly, he must 'notify the public in the determined way' of the application, an expression defined by s 252(1) as meaning giving notice in the way determined by the Minister. Subsection (2) of s 252 provides examples of the ways in which notice may be given, including notice in newspapers or by radio broadcasts or television transmissions. These sections do not assist the seventh respondent's argument. Notice of the application must be given to a broader class than those persons specified in paragraph (a) of s 66(2). The public will be notified of the application through publication in the media. In due course persons who have an interest and wish to be involved in the application will be able to do so. In my opinion the Tribunal erred in concluding that the question whether the applicant has a sufficient interest to become a party to the proceeding before the Tribunal is governed by the definition of 'interest' in s 253. It is not necessary for the second ground of appeal to be determined, namely, whether the Deputy President was empowered to deny the status of a party to the applicant when no party to the proceeding had objected to the applicant's entitlement to become a party. However, the point may be disposed of briefly. Section 69(1) of the Act (previously mentioned) vests in the Tribunal the power to decide whether the interests of a person may be affected by a determination and therefore whether that person is entitled to be a party in relation to the application under s 68(2)(a). Further, the decision of the Tribunal that the interests of a person may be affected is conclusive (s 69(1)). It is for the Tribunal to decide these matters. If a party in relation to the application for native title challenges the status of a person who seeks to become a party, the Tribunal's consideration of that question will be enlivened. But it is not a condition precedent to the exercise by the Tribunal of its power to decide whether a person has interests which may be affected by the determination that a party raises the point. The Act squarely places the responsibility upon the Tribunal to decide whether or not a person is a party to the application. The remaining question is whether the applicant has 'interests that may be affected by the determination in relation to the application'. That is the language of s 68(2). I do not think it is for this Court to decide the question. The Tribunal approached the question of the applicant's interests for the purposes of s 68(2)(a) on the basis it was governed by the definition of 'interest' in s 253. The Tribunal erred in this approach and a wider approach of the kind I have discussed is called for. In view of the approach which the Tribunal adopted, it did not consider the question of the applicant's status on the merits. As mentioned earlier, s 69(1) of the Act entrusts to the Tribunal the task of deciding whether the interests of the applicant may be affected by a determination in this matter. If the Tribunal decides that the interests of the applicant may be affected, the decision of the Tribunal is 'conclusive'. C.f. Achilleos v Housing Commission [1960] VR 164, and Komesoroff v Law Institute of Victoria [1992] 2 VR 259. See Professor Enid Campbell, Revocation and Variation of Administrative Decisions, 22 Monash University Law Review 30 at 56-57. In my opinion it is for the Tribunal to decide the question of status of the applicant as a party in relation to the application. Accordingly, I would remit the matter to the Tribunal to determine the question whether the applicant has 'interests which may be affected by a determination in relation to the application' for the purposes of ss 68 and 69 of the Act. However, as the question of the applicant's standing was fully argued before us, and the facts relevant to this question at this stage of the matter are before us, I shall summarize them for the benefit of the Tribunal, though mindful of the fact that the decision of the applicant's standing is for the Tribunal to decide on the material then before it. The applicant was formed in 1989 as an unincorporated volunteer community organization, by a group of local citizens concerned about environmental and social justice issues in the Byron shire. It was incorporated under the Associations Incorporation Act 1984 (NSW) on 22 December 1992. It was registered as a charity under the provisions of the Charitable Collections Act 1934 (NSW) in 1993. The constitution of the applicant is in evidence. Its 'Aims and Objects' appear in paragraphs 1 to 13 of the constitution in the following terms: '1. To promote a recognition that all life forms are interconnected. 2. To promote and support the healing and conservation of the environment along sound ecological guidelines. 3. To further public awareness and community conscience of environmental issues of local, national and international significance. 4. To carry out surveys and research in furtherance of the Centre's objectives. 5. To print, publish or disseminate any information, newspaper, periodical, books or leaflets for the promotion of the Centre's objectives. 6. To subscribe, to become a member or co-operate with, establish or support other associations with similar aims and objectives. 7. To promote and support (objective and) rational initiatives and proposed developments which are able to co-exist with and are sensitive to the natural environment. 8. To apply, take up and accept grants, subsidies, donations and gifts of money and all types of property. 9. To make donations for charitable or socially or environmentally useful purposes. 10. To acknowledge and support the role that Australian Aboriginals and Torres Strait Islanders have played and continue to play as custodians of the land. 11. To promote and support gender equity, racial equality, non-militaristic and peaceful settlement of disputes, egalitarianism, preservation of diversity and basic ecological systems, conservation of natural resources in the Byron District and elsewhere. 12. To promote an empathy with nature and all life forms and an understanding of the interconnectedness of all life processes as an essential element in the process of social transformation. Incorporating an ecologically sustainable vision which recognises these principles in relation to the natural environment and their worth seven generation hence. 13. To create non-sexist forms of organisation and decision making, which are non-competitive, non-hierarchical, and reflect a "new democracy" which is process orientated (consultative), co-operative and empowering of all participants. The applicant is and has been for some years closely involved in the protection of the lands and waters in the Byron Bay area and has been frequently consulted and invited by Federal, State and Local government instrumentalities to participate in steering committees, community consultations and enquiries. It has played a role in the determination of land management policies in respect of proposed national parks or nature reserves for the Cape Byron and Broken Head areas within which is the land the subject of this claim. It has displayed particular interest in the issues relating to Aboriginal land rights and culture in the Byron Shire and the adjoining shire of Ballina. The activities of the applicant relate to the proper use and management of the land which is the subject of the native title claim. Nominees of the applicant have been appointed to various local government committees concerned with land management, in particular the North Coast Environmental Council (see North Coast Environmental Council Inc v Minister for Resources (1995) 127 ALR 617); also the Cape Byron Consultative Steering Committee. This is a body convened by the National Parks and Wildlife Service to determine appropriate land management policies concerning the proposed national park or nature reserve for the area between Cape Byron and Broken Head. A nominee of the applicant is also a member of the sub-committee of that steering committee which is considering a proposal for a joint cultural/environmental centre to be established with the co-operation of the Arakwal Aboriginal Corporation. In 1989 the applicant opened 'shop front' premises in Byron Bay from which merchandise of an 'environmentally sound' kind acceptable to the applicant is sold and from which photocopying and secretarial facilities are made available to members. The various activities of the applicant have always been largely funded from the proceeds of the sales of merchandise. Decisions of the applicant are made by consensus at weekly meetings of its council which comprises 25 members. The activities of the applicant are summarized in the letter which it wrote on 4 December 1995 to the Tribunal seeking to become a party to the claim. The letter states, relevantly, the following: 'Since our inception in 1989 we have worked as a community volunteer non-profit organisation and involve no private interests. Recognising the vulnerability of the coastal area in which we live, BEC members have fought for protection of lands and waters at Taylors Lakes, Tallow Creek, Belongil, Broken Head, Cibum Margil Swamp, Suffolk Park, the West Byron Sewerage Plant, Cavanbah sand dunes, and Sandhills Estate. We have opposed launching ramps and the skimming of dunal areas to protect the Shine's beaches. At the Cape Byron Reserve, BEC members have worked with the Cape Byron Trust on a regeneration scheme devising weed management plans. Our concerns are species diversity, ecological sustainability, managed access to beaches and recreational areas, fire control and the control of noxious weeds, irrespective of with whom the responsibility of management lies. It has been necessary within our work practice to challenge and negotiate with Federal, State and Local Government instrumentalities from whom we have won respect. We are now accepted and frequently consulted and invited by them to participate in steering committees, community consultations and enquiries. The Byron Environment Centre therefore seeks participation in the negotiation process to maintain the integrity of the land under claim.' On the question of costs, the seventh respondent opposed the respondent's appeal on all issues; the eighth respondent, the Minister for Land and Water Conservation of New South Wales, supported the applicant in its case concerning the construction of s 68; but argued that the applicant was not a body which had a sufficient interest to support its status as a party to the native title application. Once the Tribunal had rejected the applicant's application to be a party, the applicant was obliged to appeal to the Court if it wished to pursue the matter. It was necessary that the applicant satisfy the Court that the Tribunal erred to lay the foundation for its claim that it was entitled to be a party to the native title application, and thereby it incurred costs and expenses of this proceeding accordingly. The opposition of the seventh respondent and partial opposition of the eighth respondent would not in my view have added greatly to the costs and expenses of the applicant. The fair order for costs is that the seventh respondent pay one-third of the applicant's costs of the appeal, and that otherwise there be no order for costs. I would make the following orders:

That the decision of the Tribunal be set aside.
That the matter be remitted to the Tribunal to determine the question of the applicant's standing pursuant to ss 68 and 69 of the Act.
That the seventh respondent pay one-third of the costs of the applicant of this appeal; and that otherwise there be no order for costs. I certify that this and the preceding eighteen (18) pages are a true copy of the Reasons for Judgment herein of the Honourable Justice Lockhart

REASONS FOR JUDGMENT MERKEL J: INTRODUCTION The Native Title Act 1993 (Cth) ("the Act") provides for the legislative recognition and protection of the form of native title recognised as existing and enforceable as a common law right in Australia by the decision of the High Court in Mabo v The State of Queensland (No. 2) (1992) 175 CLR 1. The Act is a code for the protection of native title by removing its vulnerability to defeasance at common law: see ss 3(a), 11(1) and Western Australia v The Commonwealth (1995) 183 CLR 373 at 453. Under the Act a mechanism is established for determining claims to native title by providing for negotiation and agreement and failing agreement, judicial determination of native title claims. In the course of discussing the legislative preference for resolving native title claims by negotiation in North Ganalanja Aboriginal Corporation v Queensland (1996) 185 CLR 595 Brennan CJ, Dawson, Toohey, Gaudron and Gummow JJ said at 613-4: "It was inevitable that the recognition of native title by the common law and its protection by the Racial Discrimination Act would generate novel legal problems relating to the title to land claimed by Aborigines in accordance with traditional laws and customs. The Act addressed some of these problems. Although a claim to native title as defined in Mabo [No. 2] was justiciable, the issues of fact raised by such a claim were complex and, in the event of opposition, would be likely to take significant time and resources (including judicial resources) to determine." and at 617: "If it be practicable to resolve an application for determination of native title by negotiation and agreement rather than by the judicial determination of complex issues, the Court and the likely parties to the litigation are saved a great deal in time and resources. Perhaps more importantly, if the persons interested in the determination of those issues negotiate and reach an agreement, they are enabled thereby to establish an amicable relationship between future neighbouring occupiers." The persons "interested" in the determination of a claim for native title are those whose interests may be affected by the determination. The Act provides for such persons to participate as parties in: • the negotiation of the claim in the National Native Title Tribunal ("the NNTT"); • any judicial determination of the claim in the Federal Court. This appeal, which arises out of a claim by the Arakwal People for native title to certain land and waters in the Byron Bay district in New South Wales, raises an important question as to the nature and extent of the interest required to entitle a person to participate as a party in the negotiation and determination of a claim to native title under the Act. THE APPEAL The Byron Environment Centre Incorporated ("the Centre") has appealed to the Court under s 169(3) of the Act from a decision of the NNTT refusing the request of the Centre, under s 68(2) of the Act, to be a party in relation to the application of the Arakwal People for a determination of native title. The application was lodged pursuant to s 61(1) of the Act on 22 December 1994. It was accepted by the NNTT, under s 63 of the Act, on 20 September 1995. In the register of the NNTT the claim is recorded as relating to: "Various areas of Crown Land, beaches and coastal waters between Belongil Creek at Byron Bay and Jews Point on the North Coast of NSW including part of Broken Head Nature Reserve." The native title rights and interest claimed are recorded as: "The right to live on the land and travel over the land. The right to hunt and fish on or from the land, sea and inland waters, and to collect food from the land and waters. The right to take items from the land and sea and waters such as timber, stones, resins, shells, and to make such things as shelter, tools and hunting implements. The right to conduct ceremonies on the land, sea and waters and the right to prevent other people from entering the land, sea and waters and from removing any items from these areas. Subject to any rights or interests created by the State of New South Wales and/or the Commonwealth of Australia not inconsistent with the Native Title Act, 1993 or the Racial Discrimination Act 1975." The claim of the right to prevent other people from entering the land, sea and waters covered by the claim and from removing any items from those areas, which include a number of beaches and fishing waters regularly used by the public, is significant. If successful, the claim is one which is likely to affect, directly and indirectly, a large number and variety of individuals, organisations and businesses. The request of the Centre to be a party was refused on the ground that the interests of the Centre will not be affected by the determination sought, as it did not have an "interest" in relation to any of the land or waters covered by the claim, as defined in s 253 of the Act. The appeal, which is on questions of both fact and law, was referred for hearing by a Full Court. Jurisdiction is conferred on the Court under s 169 which, so far as is relevant, provides: "(5) The Court has jurisdiction to hear and determine appeals instituted in the Court in accordance with this section and that jurisdiction may be exercised by the Court constituted as a Full Court. (6) The Court must hear and determine the appeal and may make such order as it thinks appropriate by reason of its decision. (7) Without limiting subsection (6), the orders that may be made by the Court on an appeal include: (a) an order affirming or setting aside the decision or determination of the Tribunal; or (b) an order remitting the case to be heard and decided again, either with or without the hearing of further evidence, by the Tribunal in accordance with the directions of the Court." The nature of an appeal under s 169(3) can raise difficult questions of the kind considered in Builders Licensing Board v Sperway Constructions (Syd) Pty Ltd (1976) 135 CLR 616 at 619-622 and Poletti v Commissioner of Taxation (1994) 52 FCR 154 at 156-157. However, in view of the conclusions at which I have arrived it is unnecessary to examine those questions in the present case. Essentially, the appeal raises two questions: (a) Is the class of persons entitled to be a party under s 68(2)(a), being those whose "interests" may be affected by a determination in relation to an application for native title, limited to persons who have an "interest", as defined in s 253, in relation to the land and waters the subject of the application? (b) If the answer to the first question is "no" then how is the nature and extent of the interest required by s 68(2)(a) to be defined? THE BYRON ENVIRONMENT CENTRE The Centre was established in 1989 and incorporated on 22 December 1992. The Centre's aims and objectives, as stated in its Constitution, relate generally to the advancement and promotion of ecological and environmental issues but include: "1. ..... 2. To promote and support the healing and conservation of the environment along sound ecological guidelines. ..... 7. To promote and support (objective and) rational initiatives and proposed developments which are able to co-exist with and are sensitive to the natural environment. ..... 10. To acknowledge and support the role that Australian Aboriginals and Torres Strait Islanders have played and continue to play as custodians of the land. 11. To promote and support gender equity, racial equality, non-militaristic and peaceful settlement of disputes, egalitarianism, preservation of diversity and basic ecological systems, conservation of natural resources in the Byron District and elsewhere. ....." The Centre's membership is made up of approximately 100 persons or entities within the Byron Shire in New South Wales who or which have a common concern about environmental and social justice issues. The Centre has been primarily concerned with environmental and ecological issues in the Byron Bay district. It has had its nominees appointed to various local government committees involved with land management. The committees include the North Coast Environmental Council and the Cape Byron Consultative Steering Committee convened by the National Parks & Wildlife Service to determine appropriate land management policy in respect of the proposed national park and nature reserve for the area between Cape Byron and Broken Head in New South Wales. The Centre is also a member of the subcommittee considering a proposal for a joint cultural and environmental centre to be established with the co-operation of the Arakwal Aboriginal Corporation. The evidence adduced by the Centre demonstrates that it has supported Aboriginal land rights and culture in the local area and, in particular, the claim of the Arakwal People for native title. The evidence does not establish that the Centre conducts any specific activities in the area covered by the claim for native title or that the activities or programs that it does conduct from time to time might be curtailed, interfered with or otherwise affected by a determination of native title. The Centre's request that it be a party in relation to the claim was made by letter to the NNTT on 4 December 1995. The letter stated: "Byron Environment Centre wishes to be come a party to claim for the following reasons. Since our inception in 1989 we have worked as a community volunteer non-profit organisation and involve no private interests. Recognising the vulnerability of the coastal area in which we live, BEC members have fought for protection of lands and waters at Taylors Lakes, Tallow Cree, Belongil, Broken Head Cibum Margil Swamp, Suffolk Park, the West Byron Sewerage Plant, Cavanbah sand dunes, and Sandhills Estate. We have opposed launching ramps and the skimming of dunal areas to protect the Shine's beaches. At the Cape Byron Reserve, BEC members have worked with the Cape Byron Trust on a generation scheme devising weed management plans. Our concerns are species diversity, ecological sustainability, managed access to beaches and recreational areas, fire control and the control of noxious weeds, irrespective of with whom the responsibility of management lies. It has been necessary within our work practice to challenge and negotiate with Federal, State and Local Government instrumentalities from whom we have won respect. We are now accepted and frequently consulted and invited by them to participate in steering committees, community consultations and inquiries. The Byron Environment Centre therefore seeks participation in the negotiation process to maintain the integrity of the land under claim." On 19 December 1995 the case manager responsible for the claim prepared the following Minute for consideration by the Hon Hal Wootten QC, a Presidential Member of the NNTT: "Section 69.(1) decision required; re NC95/1 (Arakwal People); Application by Byron Environment Centre Inc. To be a party. This is a request to you as a Presidential Member of the National Native Title Tribunal, under s.69(1) of the Native Title Act 1993, to decide whether the interests of a person may be affected by a determination. The Byron Environment Centre has applied to be a party to the claimant application by the Arakwal People for Crown land and waters in and around Byron Bay on the north coast of NSW (reference number NC95/1). A copy of the application to be a party is attached. In the application the Incorporated association asserts that it has been actively involved in campaigns to conserve and protect the lands and waters in and around Byron Bay. They have environmental concerns in relation to species diversity, ecological sustainability etc. They seek participation in the negotiation process to maintain the integrity of the land under claim. I draw your attention to paragraph 9.3 of the Tribunal's procedures revised 8 September 1995 and specifically that that procedure provides that the Presidential Member may invite a submission from the applicant to be a party and sets out a timeframe for the decision to be made. There is nothing in the application to be a party that shows the Byron Environment Centre Inc. has an interest as defined by s.253 of the Native Title Act 1993 ie; a legal or equitable estate, a right, charge, power or privilege over or in connection with the land or a restriction on the use of the land in question. On that basis I would recommend non-acceptance of their application." On 20 December 1995 Mr Wootten QC made his decision pursuant to s 69(1) of the Act by writing at the foot of the Minute: "I agree. Pursuant to ss 68 and 69 I decide that the Byron Bay Environment Centre does not have interests that may be affected within the meaning of the Native Title Act." THE SUBMISSIONS The Centre submitted that: • it was consistent with the scope and purpose of the Act for a broad view to be taken of the "interests" that may be affected by a determination for the purposes of s 68(2)(a); • as it had a real, genuine, direct and active interest in the conservation and ecology of the area covered by the claim, its "interests" were affected; • accordingly, it was a person whose "interests may be affected by a determination" in relation to the application of the Arakwal People and was entitled to be a party in the matter in the NNTT. Only the seventh and eighth respondents sought to be heard on the appeal. The seventh respondent ("The NSW Aboriginal Lands Council") submitted that the broad view of s 68(2)(a) and the Act proposed by the appellant would substantially undermine the efficacy of the statutory negotiation and mediation process. It contended that persons with varied and general interests unrelated to any "interest" in the land or waters claimed were not entitled to be parties to, and therefore capable of defeating, that process. It submitted that the tribunal correctly decided that the interest required by a person to become a party in a matter before the NNTT is an interest in relation to land or waters as defined in s 253 of the Act. The eighth respondent ("the NSW Minister") submitted that the interest required by s 68(2)(a) is not limited to an "interest" in relation to land or waters as defined in s 253. The Minister contended that in each case the Court must examine how the person applying to be a party may be affected by the determination of native title sought by the claimants and determine whether the interest asserted is sufficiently proximate for a joinder order to be made, having regard to the scope and purpose of the Act. On the basis of that test it was submitted that the interest of the Centre, being merely of an "emotional, conscientious or intellectual kind", is not sufficiently proximate, direct or tangible to warrant joinder. THE ACT Section 61 provides for applications to be made for a determination of native title. Native title is defined in s 223(1): Common law rights and interests 223.(1) The expression "native title" or "native title rights and interests" means the communal, group or individual rights and interests of Aboriginal peoples or Torres Strait Islanders in relation to land or waters, where: (a) the rights and interests are possessed under the traditional laws acknowledged, and the traditional customs observed, by the Aboriginal peoples or Torres Strait Islanders; and (b) the Aboriginal peoples or Torres Strait Islanders, by those laws and customs, have a connection with the land or waters; and (c) the rights and interests are recognised by the common law of Australia. Hunting, gathering and fishing covered (2) Without limiting subsection (1), "rights and interests" in that subsection includes hunting, gathering, or fishing, rights and interests. (3) ...... (4) ...... A determination of native title, being the common law property rights of the native title holders, is defined in s 225: Determination of native title "225. A "determination of native title" is a determination of the following: (a) whether native title exists in relation to a particular area of land or waters; (b) if it exists: (i) who holds it; and (ii) whether the native title rights and interests confer possession, occupation, use and enjoyment of the land or waters on its holders to the exclusion of all others; and (iii) those native title rights and interests that the maker of the determination considers to be of importance; and (iv) in any case - the nature and extent of any other interest in relation to the land or waters that may affect the native title rights and interests." Under s 62(1) an application for native title must, inter alia, "(b) contain all information known to the applicant about interests in relation to any of the land or waters concerned that are held by persons other than as native title holders.... An "interest" in relation to land or waters is defined in s 253: ""interest", in relation to land or waters, means: (a) a legal or equitable estate or interest in the land or waters; or (b) any other right (including a right under an option and a right of redemption), charge, power or privilege over, or in connection with: (i) the land or waters; or (ii) an estate or interest in the land or waters; or (c) a restriction on the use of the land or waters, whether or not annexed to other land or waters." Section 63 provides for the claim to be accepted unless it is frivolous or vexatious or, prima facie, the claim cannot be made out. If a claim is "fairly arguable" on the material presented by the applicants it must be accepted: see North Ganalanja Aboriginal Corporation at 623. Section 66 provides: "Action by Registrar (1) If an application is accepted under section 63, the Registrar must: (a) give notice of the application to all persons whose interests may be affected by a determination in relation to the application; and (b) if the application is a native title determination application by a person or persons claiming to hold the native title - record details of the application in the Register of Native Title Claims. Giving of notice (2) The Registrar is taken to have given notice to all persons whose interests may be affected by a determination in relation to an application if the Registrar: (a) gives notice containing details of the application to: (i) the registered native title claimant (if any) in relation to the area covered by the application; and (ii) the Commonwealth Minister; and (iii) if any of the area covered by the application is within the jurisdictional limits of a State or Territory - the State Minister or Territory Minister for the State or Territory; and (iv) any registered native title body corporate in relation to any of the area covered by the application; and (v) any person who holds a proprietary interest in any of the area covered by the application, being an interest that is registered in a register of interests in relation to land or waters maintained by the Commonwealth, a State or a Territory; and (vi) any representative Aboriginal\Torres Strait Islander body for any of the area covered by the application; and (b) notifies the public in the determined way of the application. Contents of notice (3) A notice under subsection (2) must also state that: (a) ...... (b) in any other case - a person who wants to be a party in relation to the application must notify the Registrar, in writing, within the period of 2 months starting on the day the notice is given. (4) ......" Section 62(1)(b) requires that the Registrar be provided with information about "interests" in relation to land or waters, as defined in s 253, held by persons in respect of the land or waters covered by the claim. The Registrar can then determine whether those persons: • may be affected by a determination in relation to the application; • ought to be notified of the application as required by s 66(1)(a). It is not surprising that the information required to be given by the applicants is limited to persons holding an "interest" as defined by s 253, and does not extend to other persons whose interests may be affected by the determination sought. The former category is reasonably certain and could be expected to be known, or be readily ascertainable, by the native title applicants. The latter category is uncertain, requires a value judgement and may not be known or readily ascertainable by the applicants. Section 66 provides the mechanism for potential parties to be informed of the application. It is significant that the legislature has not limited the requirement to give notice to persons holding an "interest" as defined in s 253. Section 66(1) requires the Registrar to give notice to persons whose interests may be affected by a determination so that they may apply to be parties. The sub-section relates to persons who may be potentially affected rather than to persons known by the Registrar to be potentially affected. Accordingly, it was necessary to make provision for deemed notice under s 66(2). Under s 68(2) each of the persons described in s 66(2)(a) is entitled to be a party in relation to the application notwithstanding that that person may not necessarily have an "interest" in relation to land or waters as defined in s 253. Also relevant is the provision in s 66(2)(b) for notification to the public. That notification enables persons whose interests may be affected by the determination to become aware of the application and to request that they be made parties in relation to it under s 68(2). Sections 68 and 69 provide: "Applicant 68(1) The applicant is a party in relation to the application. Other parties (2) Another person is a party in relation to the application if: (a) the person is covered by any of subparagraphs 66(2)(a)(i) to (vi) or the person's interests may be affected by a determination in relation to the application; and (b) the person notifies the Registrar, in writing, within the period specified in the notice under section 66, that the person wants to be a party in relation to the application. ..... Tribunal to decide 69(1) If it is necessary for the purposes of this Division to decide whether the interests of a person may be affected by a determination, that matter is to be decided by the Tribunal and, if the Tribunal decides that the interests of a person may be affected, the decision of the Tribunal is conclusive. Constitution of Tribunal (2) For the purposes of making a decision under subsection (1), the Tribunal must be constituted by a presidential member." If the request by a person to be made a party is refused, an appeal is available under s 169(3) which provides: "If a person has applied to the Tribunal to be made a party to an application, and the Tribunal decides that the interests of the person will not be affected by a determination, the person may appeal to the Court, on a question of fact or law, from the decision of the Tribunal." The decision of the tribunal under s 69(1), which may be the subject of appeal, is that the interests of a person (in the present case - the Centre) will not be affected by the determination sought. A person who is made a party has substantial rights under the Act. The person is entitled to participate in the negotiation process in the NNTT and in any inquiry conducted by the NNTT in relation to the application: see ss 70, 71, 72, 73, 139 and 141. If an application which has been accepted under s 63 is unopposed, the NNTT may make a determination of native title under s 70(1). If the parties agree on the terms of a determination of native title, subject to compliance with s 71, the NNTT must make a determination in accordance with those terms: see s 71. Where there is no agreement the matter proceeds to mediation under s 72 and, failing agreement after mediation, to the Federal Court: see s 74. The assent or lack of opposition of each party involved in the process of negotiation or agreement is necessary for a determination of native title in the NNTT. In substance, any party can veto an agreement or prevent a matter proceeding as unopposed in the NNTT thereby requiring a determination of the application by the Court. In that regard s 74 provides: "If an application is accepted under section 63 and the Tribunal does not make a determination under section 70, 71 or 73, the Registrar must lodge the application to the Federal Court for decision." Section 84(1) provides for all persons who were parties in relation to the application in the NNTT to be parties to the matter in the Court. Section 84 provides: "Persons to remain parties 84(1) The persons who were parties under section 68 in relation to the application are parties. Joining parties (2) A person may seek leave of the Federal Court to be joined as a party to proceedings if the person's interests are affected by the matter or may be affected by a determination in the proceedings." A determination of native title by the NNTT is not final or operative until registration of the determination in the Court under s 166: see s 167(1). A right to apply for the review of any determination by the tribunal is conferred under s 167(4) which provides: "A party to the inquiry before the Tribunal, or any other person whose interests are affected by the determination, may apply to the Federal Court for review of the determination." The change in wording from interests that "may" be affected to interests that "are" affected follows from the fact that at that stage the determination, and its effect on the interests of persons, is a known fact and no longer merely a prospect or possibility. The parties to any review are set out in s 168(2): "The parties to the review are: (a) the applicant for review; and (b) the persons who were parties to the inquiry before the Tribunal; and (c) any other person whose interests are affected by the determination who applies to be made a party." The general legislative intention in respect of the provisions as to parties is clear. A native title determination, in any particular case, might affect different persons and their interests in a multiplicity of ways. Consequently, the legislature has ensured that all persons whose interests may be affected by a determination are entitled to be parties to the application and thereby be afforded the opportunity to be heard in relation to it before it is finally determined by the Court. The right of veto of any party in the NNTT is, in many respects, a substantive right. However, it gives effect to the legislative intention that there be no final determination of native title against persons whose interests may be or are affected by the determination sought, without those persons having been afforded the opportunity of being heard in the NNTT or the Court: see ss 66(1)(a), 66(2)(b), 66(3)(b), 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 84, 166, 167, 168 and 169. In that context it is appropriate to consider the principles which have been applied in determining the entitlement of persons whose interests may be affected by a decision to become parties in a matter. DECISIONS AS TO THE ENTITLEMENT OF PERSONS WHOSE INTERESTS MAY BE AFFECTED BY A MATTER TO BECOME PARTIES IN THE MATTER Decisions as to standing fall broadly into two areas. The first is concerned with standing in a justiciable controversy in which a person is seeking to enforce or protect that person's rights. A broad view has been taken as to what may constitute a sufficient interest for the purposes of determining whether a justiciable controversy has arisen. In Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain v Dickson [1970] AC 403 at 433 Lord Upjohn said: "A person whose freedom of action is challenged can always come to the court and have his rights and position clarified, subject always, of course, to the right of the court in exercise of its judicial discretion to refuse relief in the circumstances of the case." See also Buckley v Tutty (1971) 125 CLR 353 at 381, Re Tooth & Co Ltd (1978) 31 FLR 314 at 331 and Croome v Tasmania (1997) 71 ALJR 430 at 433. Rules of Court now confer wide power to grant leave to persons to become parties to a matter. But, traditionally the Courts have acted upon the principle that a person ought to be a party, and thereby be afforded the opportunity to be heard, if that person's rights against or liabilities to any party to the action in respect of the subject matter will be directly affected by any order which may be made in the action: see Pegang Mining Co Ltd v Choong Sam (1969) 2 MLJ 52 at 55-6 and News Ltd & Ors v Australian Rugby Football League Ltd & Ors (1996) 139 ALR 193 at 297-301. In general there is a requirement that the interest of a person seeking to enforce or protect his or her personal or private rights in a proceeding be one which is actual, direct and definite or tangible although it need not necessarily be a commercial, pecuniary or proprietary interest. The second area of decision relating to standing is concerned with persons seeking to enforce a public duty or prevent violation of a public right. In this area the High Court in Australian Conservation Foundation Inc. v The Commonwealth (1980) 146 CLR 493 and Onus v Alcoa of Australia Ltd (1982) 149 CLR 27 has taken an expansive approach to standing. These decisions established that: • a mere intellectual or emotional belief or concern, no matter how genuine or sincerely held, in respect of the subject matter is not a sufficient interest to gain standing to bring a proceeding; • the asserted interest must go beyond that of members of the public in upholding a principle or the law or in righting a wrong; • a "special interest" in the subject matter of the proceeding can be a sufficient interest to gain standing. For example, if the person asserting the interest is "specially affected" by the decision in question, that is, in comparison with the public at large the person has been affected to a substantially greater degree or in a significantly different manner, that person has a "special interest": see Brennan J in Onus at 74. In Onus at 73 Brennan J explained the rationale for rejecting a narrow approach to standing in a matter involving a public duty: "A special interest in the subject matter of an action being neither a legal nor equitable right, nor a proprietary or pecuniary interest, will ordinarily be found to arise from modern legislation enacted to protect or enhance non-material interests - interests in the environment, in historical heritage, in culture. Where such a statute imposes a public duty to protect or enhance a non-material interest a breach of the duty is apt to affect a non-material interest, and it would be vain to search for proprietary or pecuniary damage suffered by a plaintiff. A plaintiff in such a case, though he may be able to show a special interest in what the statute seeks to protect or enhance, would be unable to show a private right or to prove that he has suffered proprietary or pecuniary damage. To deny standing would deny to an important category of modern public statutory duties an effective procedure for curial enforcement." The principles established in Australian Conservation Foundation and Onus have been applied in determining standing to seek administrative or judicial review of decisions under the Administrative Decisions (Judicial Review) Act 1977 (Cth) ("the ADJR Act"), the Administrative Appeals Tribunal Act 1975 (Cth) ("the AAT Act") and other analogous legislation which entitle a person "aggrieved" or "whose interests are affected" by a decision to apply for review of the decision. As the legislature has selected the latter formulation or formulations akin to it in the Act as the criterion for standing in ss 68(2) and 84(2), it is appropriate to consider decisions of the Court dealing with these formulations. In United States Tobacco Company v Minister for Consumer Affairs and Ors (1988) 20 FCR 520 Davies, Wilcox & Gummow JJ said at 527: "The term "interest" has long been an expression used in the law with respect to parties so as to require an involvement with a case greater than the concern of a person who is a mere intermeddler or busybody. Nevertheless, the criterion for standing prescribed by the Act is not a restrictive one. The broadest of technical terms has been selected. The necessary interest need not be a legal, proprietary, financial or other tangible interest. Neither need it be peculiar to the particular person." and at 529: "In an analogous field, standing for the purpose of the Administrative Appeals Tribunal Act 1975 (Cth), Davies J said in Control Investments Pty Ltd v Australian Broadcasting Tribunal (1980) 50 FLR 1 at 8-9: 'In their context in ss 27 and 30, the words 'interests are affected' denote interests which a person has other than as a member of the general public and other than as a person merely holding a belief that a particular type of conduct should be prevented or a particular law observed. The interest affected need not be a legal interest nor need the person seeking joinder establish legal ownership of the interest. As Brennan J said in Re McHattan and Collector of Customs (1977) 18 ALR 154 at 157:' 'The relevant "interests" do not have to be pecuniary interests or even specific legal rights....' However, a person seeking joinder must be able to identify a relevant interest which is his. In other contexts, dicta in cases have used the adjectives 'real', 'genuine' and 'direct' to describe the relationship required between the decision and the interest. Sections 27(1) and 30(1) do not make use of adjectives but they do require that the applicant demonstrates genuine affection of an interest which attaches to him. The nature of the interest required in a particular case will be influenced by the subject matter and context of the decision under review. As Brennan J said in McHattan's case at 157: 'However, a decision which affects interests of one person directly may affect the interests of others indirectly. Across the pool of sundry interest, the ripples of affection may widely extend. The problem which is inherent in the language of the statute is the determination of the point beyond which affection of interests by a decision should be regarded as too remote for the purposes of s.27(1). The character of the decision is relevant, for if the interests relied on are of such a kind that a decision of the given character could not affect them directly, there must be some evidence to show that the interests are in truth affected'." In Alphapharm Pty Ltd v Smithkline Beecham (Australia) Pty Ltd & Ors (1994) 49 FCR 250 Davies J, after reiterating that the term "interests are affected" requires that the applicant demonstrate genuine affection of an interest which attaches to him, said at 259: "Relevant proprietary and financial interests have traditionally been considered to be sufficient. See eg Tooheys Ltd v. Minister for Business and Consumer Affairs (1981) 54 FLR 421; Broadbridge v. Stammers (1987) 16 FCR 296; New South Wales Fish Authority v. Phillips [1970] 1 NSWR 725; Association of Data Processing Service Organisations v. Camp 397 US 150 (1969). Indeed, in recent years, most attention has been given to those circumstances in which persons without any proprietary or commercial or tangible interest have, nevertheless, been thought to have standing to take part in the administrative process or in legal proceedings. See eg Sinclair v. Mining Warden at Maryborough (1975) 132 CLR 473; Onus v. Alcoa of Australia Ltd (1981) 149 CLR 27; Ogle v. Strickland (1987) 13 FCR 306; the US Tobacco case; Telecasters North Queensland Ltd v. Australian Broadcasting Tribunal (1988) 82 ALR 90; Australian Conservation Foundation v. Minister for Resources (1989) 76 LGRA 200 and Cameron v. Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (1993) 46 FCR 509." and at 260: "In US Tobacco at 529, the Court said: 'The nature of the interest required in a particular case will be influenced by the subject matter and content of the decision under review.' This must be so with respect to the phrase "interests are affected", when used in a statute which provides for the administrative review of an administrative decision. In such event, the review, which forms part of the process of administrative decision-making, is provided to promote the achievement of the objects of the statute. The term "aggrieved", when used in the context of judicial review, may have a different connotation, for the object of judicial review is to ensure that the law is observed. The question of standing is, indeed, related to issues of procedural fairness. If a person has interests which ought to be taken into account in the making of a decision, then ordinarily that person should be entitled to be heard." Gummow J said at 272: "Like the expression "a person aggrieved", the phrase "a person whose interests are affected by the decision" and cognate terms, appear in a variety of statutes as the identification of the persons who are given standing to seek administrative or judicial review. The day is long gone when there was any general presumption that in such statutes the "interests" concerned must be proprietary or even legal or equitable in nature, or that the affectation be of a nature as understood in private law. However, it is important not to draw from what was said in any particular decision by way of identification of that which did or did not amount to a sufficient affectation of an interest any general proposition which may be translated to the instant dispute. In each case, the content of the terms "affect" and "interest" are to be seen in the light of the scope and purpose of the particular statute in issue." These principles have been applied in several recent decisions relating to standing to apply for review under the ADJR Act. In North Coast Environment Council Inc. v Minister for Resources (1994) 127 ALR 617 Sackville J held that the council had a sufficient interest in a decision to grant a licence for the export of woodchipping because of its special interest in, and activities in relation to, the preservation of the environment of the area, the subject of the licence. In Right to Life Association (NSW) Inc v Secretary, Department of Human Services and Health (1995) 56 FCR 50 the Full Court held that the Association did not have a sufficient interest in a decision concerning clinical trials of a substance associated with procuring abortions merely because of its general involvement in defending the right to life and opposing abortions. The Association's grievance in that regard was held to not travel beyond that which a person may have as an ordinary member of the public. In many instances a commercial interest in a decision can be a sufficient interest. However, in Alphapharm the Full Court relied upon the subject matter, scope and purpose of the legislation in question, being the Therapeutic Goods Act 1989 (Cth), to conclude that a competitor's commercial interest in preventing the marketing of a competitive product was not a sufficient interest to afford the competitor standing to challenge a decision made under the Act. The purely competitive or economic interest in protecting market share against a competitor's product, which was registered under the Act pursuant to the decision of the Minister, was held not to be an interest that should be taken into account in relation to the decision or a reconsideration of that decision. The decision in Alphapharm is of particular relevance to the present case. The ADJR Act provides general procedures for judicial review of decisions made under Commonwealth enactments. However, the Act in question in Alphapharm afforded a person affected by the particular Ministerial decision to register a product under the Act, an entitlement to apply to the Minister to reconsider his decision and an entitlement to seek review of the decision by the Administrative Appeals Tribunal. The Court unanimously held that a competitor lacked standing because its commercial interests were irrelevant to the public interest with which the Act was concerned. It was in that context that the Full Court took a narrower view of the relevant requisite interest to that usually adopted for standing for judicial review under the ADJR Act. The decision in Alphapharm suggests that what will constitute a sufficient interest to give standing to review a decision under the relevant Act depends on the connection between the interests allegedly affected and the reason for affording a person having such an interest an opportunity to be heard in relation to a decision made under the Act. In that context the difficulty lies in defining what will constitute a sufficient interest in any particular case. The Centre relied on decisions as to standing in the administrative and judicial review cases, such as North Coast Environment Council Inc, to demonstrate the width of the words "a person whose interests may be affected by a decision". However, as was pointed out by Davies and Gummow JJ in Alphapharm, the content of the terms "affect" and "interest" in any particular case must be determined in the light of the subject matter, scope and purpose of the particular statutory provisions in question. In that regard three particular features of the Act are significant. The first relates to its subject matter. Native title is a private property right and interest arising under the common law which is recognised and protected by the Act. A determination of the existence of native title does not directly or indirectly touch upon enforcement of public duties or protection from violation of public rights. The second feature relates to the scope and purpose of the right of a person, who may be affected by a determination, to be a party to the application in the NNTT and the Court. The right is not a mere entitlement to administrative or judicial review of a native title determination. It is a substantive right to become a party in the matter. That entitlement enables full participation as a party in the NNTT and the Court with a right to veto or prevent a determination of native title being made in the NNTT, rather than the Court. The right is conferred on every person having the requisite interest irrespective of the nature of the particular interest or the fact that it may relate only to part of the area covered by the claim. The third feature relates to the issues involved in determining native title. Essentially, the determination relates to the matters set out in ss 223 and 225 of the Act. As was pointed out by Brennan J in Mabo (No. 2) at 58, native title: "... has its origin in and is given its content by the traditional laws acknowledged by and the traditional customs observed by the indigenous inhabitants of a territory." Once native title or native title rights and interests as defined in s 223 are ascertained in relation to a claim under the Act, a determination must be made in accordance with s 225 and ss 55, 56 and 57. The Act does not provide for any discretionary or public interest considerations to be taken into account in making a determination. Consequently, there is no reason why the legislature would have expected that the interests of persons or groups seeking to be heard in the public interest or in respect of intellectual, conscientious or environmental considerations would be relevant or sufficient interests to give standing as a party in a matter arising under the Act. Further, a refusal of standing under the Act does not deny to "an important category of modern public statutory duties an effective procedure for curial enforcement": see Brennan J in Onus at 73. These features suggest that, having regard to the subject matter, scope and purpose of the relevant provisions in the Act: • the expansive view of "special interest" accepted as applicable in the area of public law is not applicable to a determination of native title under the Act; • notwithstanding the Act's use of a criterion commonly employed in determining an entitlement to administrative or judicial review in public law, the principles developed in the decisions as to standing in relation to enforcement or protection of personal rights are relevant but not determinative; • in each case there must be a cogent and rational connection between the interests that may be affected by a determination and the rights conferred on a party; • given the non-discretionary nature of the determination there is not such a connection between intellectual, conscientious or emotional interests in relation to the particular area covered by a claim and a determination of native title in respect of that area; • the categories of persons whose interests may be affected by a determination, and therefore ought to be taken into account prior to a final determination ought to be restricted to those whose interests may be genuinely, demonstrably and not indirectly affected by the determination of native title. If the interests alleged are remote or so insubstantial that it will be mere speculation as to whether and, if so, how they may be actually affected by the determination then the statutory criterion will not be satisfied. DECISIONS OF THE COURT AND THE NNTT UNDER THE ACT IN RESPECT OF PERSONS WHOSE INTERESTS MAY BE AFFECTED Initially the view was taken, at least by some presidential members of the NNTT, that only persons with an interest as defined by s 253 were persons whose interests may be affected by a determination. In Members of the Yorta Yorta Aboriginal Community v State of Victoria (1996) 1 AILR 402 Olney J was required to determine whether certain persons were entitled to be made parties to a native title claim in the Court under s 84 of the Act. At the mediation conference held under s 72 of the Act, Mr Graeme McPherson and the Victorian Field and Game Association applied to be made parties. Their applications were refused by Gray J, a Deputy President, on the ground that neither had an interest as defined by s 253 in relation to the land or waters covered by the claim. Before an appeal from that refusal was heard, the matter was referred to the Court. Each applicant then made application to Olney J to be parties under s 84. Olney J, after concluding that in essence the same question of construction arose under ss 68(2)(a) and 84(2), said at 405: "In my opinion, a person does not have to establish an interest in relation to land or waters (as defined) in order to be granted leave to be joined as a party pursuant to subs.84(2). I have arrived at this view after consideration of the following matters: First, subs.84(2) makes no reference to an interest in relation to land or waters. It specifically identifies the relevant interests as those of the person concerned without any qualification. Where appropriate, elsewhere in the Act Parliament has chosen to use the term "interests in relation to land or waters" (e.g. subs.19(2)(b), 21(1)(a), 21(3), 26(2)(d), 62(1)(b)) but has not used that term in subs.66(1)(a), 66(2), 68(2)(a), 69(1), 84(1) and 169(3) where the terms "person's interests" or "interests of the person" are used. As a matter of construction it can be inferred that if Parliament had intended subs.84(2) to refer to a person's interests in relation to land or waters those words would have been used. The only reasonable conclusion is that the section was not intended to be restricted to cases in which a person seeking to be joined as a party could establish that that person has an interest in relation to land or waters which may be affected by a determination in the proceedings. Second, a determination of native title may include a determination as to whether the native title rights and interests confer possession, occupation, use and enjoyment of the land or waters on its holders to the exclusion of all others (subs.225(b)(ii)). A person may habitually use and/or enjoy land or waters without necessarily having any right or title to do so (e.g. by the mere acquiescence or licence of the title holder) but could be prevented from so doing should it be determined that the native title holders are entitled to the use and enjoyment of the land or waters to the exclusion of all others. As a matter of ordinary language, it can readily be said that the interests of an habitual user of land or waters may be affected if the native title holders insist on exercising exclusive use or enjoyment of the land or waters. This reasoning leads to the conclusion that the legislative intention expressed in subs.84(2) is consistent with the literal meaning of the words used. It will be a question of fact in each case whether or not a person's interests may be affected by a determination of native title. It is necessary therefore to consider the evidence advanced in support of each of the motions presently before the Court." His Honour then considered the evidence and concluded that each of the applicants was entitled to be a party under s 84(2). Mr. McPherson engaged in regular activities in relation to the area covered by the claim, including fishing, hunting, collecting wood, camping, water skiing and related boating activities. He was also actively engaged in various conservation and environmental activities in relation to some of the areas the subject of the claim. Olney J said at 406: "Having regard to the nature and extent of his use of, and involvement with, parts of the claim area I am satisfied that if a determination of native title is made in favour of the applicants in relation to the parts of that area referred to in his affidavit, McPherson may be unable to continue to engage in the various pursuits he has described to the same extent as he is presently able to do. I am satisfied that he has a genuine desire to continue his present lifestyle and that a determination of native title may affect his ability to do so. In my opinion he has established that his interests may be affected by a determination in this proceeding and accordingly it is appropriate that he be given leave to be joined as a party to the proceeding." The Association represented a large number of game hunters and sporting shooters who were active in the area covered by the claim. The Association had engaged in activities dedicated to the conservation of game, wildlife and certain wetland habitats around Victoria. It also promoted clay target and other forms of competitive shooting. Olney J said at 406: "It is said that the Association is concerned that its interests and those of the members of its branches may be adversely affected by a determination in this proceeding. In particular it is said that the Association is concerned that a determination may lead to a curtailment, restriction of or an interference with the rights which it, its branches and affiliates and their members currently enjoy in relation to those parts of the claim area in which game hunting and related conservation and recreational activities presently are carried on. I am satisfied that the concerns expressed above are real concerns and that there is potential for the presently legitimate pursuits of the Association and of its members to be curtailed in the event of a determination of native title being made in this proceeding. The interests of the Association are obviously inextricably bound up with those of its branches and affiliates and of the individual members thereof. The interests of the Association may indeed be affected by a determination in this proceeding and accordingly it is appropriate that leave be granted to the Association to be joined as a party." In a further, but unreported, decision made in the same matter on 7 June 1996, Olney J refused an application by Western Mining Corporation Limited under s 84(2) of the Act to be made a party in the matter before the Court. The company's interest in the area covered by the claim was based on its general requirement for water for the purposes of a mining exploration licence in respect of an area outside the area covered by the claim. That interest was held to be "too remote to be worthy of serious consideration". The other interest claimed by the company was as an applicant for an exploration licence in respect of the area claimed. Olney J said at 9 "that the mere desire of an individual to obtain a licence, which may or may not be granted by the licensing authority" does not amount to an interest which has "sufficient substance to be caught by the words of s 84(2)". More recently in Re An Application for a Native Title Determination by The Gunai People French J (President of the NNTT) 17 January 1997, French J determined applications under s 68(2)(a) by a number of persons and organisations to be parties to a claim of the Gunai People to certain areas in the East Gippsland region in the State of Victoria. The native title rights and interests claimed were extensive and included the sole right to use and occupy part of the claimed area. French J said (at 6) that, although previously he had been of the view that the right of a person to be a party depended upon possession of an interest within the meaning of s 253, he was persuaded by the reasoning of Olney J in Yorta Yorta that the requisite interest is not "so limited". French J said (at 7): "In the present case, the applicants remain in sole occupation of the Aboriginal Reserve. They do not, on the face of it, claim exclusive possession of the rivers, beaches, waters and other lands within the area. Although, the claimed right to a collaborative use is to be exercised "with other Gunai People subject to and in accordance with our traditions". The content of the native title rights claimed implies the exercise of various forms of control over the use of the land, resources and waters under claim. It cannot be denied that the native title rights and interests as presently asserted may have the effect of restricting or authorising the restriction of free access by members of the public to some parts of the land or waters under claim. This, of course, is subject to the existence of any legislative regime which protects legal rights of access and which would prevail over any inconsistent native title rights. These matters cannot, however, be determined at this stage. It is sufficient to say that on the claim as presently framed, the interests of recreational users of the land and waters may be affected by a determination pursuant to the application. On that basis, I am prepared to accept that each of the persons and organisations seeking party status is entitled to it." The ten groups of persons and organisations admitted as parties in that case included frequent recreational users of part of the land and waters covered by the claim, commercial entities said to be dependant for their livelihood upon continuing recreational use of the claimed area by local persons and visitors, property owners entitled to free access to parts of the area claimed and sporting and angling clubs or associations which either conducted sporting, shooting or angling activities in parts of the claimed areas or had members who frequently or habitually engaged in such activities. The circumstances of the decisions in the two cases afford a practical demonstration of the breadth of the interests that may be claimed to be potentially affected by a native title application. HOW WIDELY DO "THE RIPPLES OF AFFECTION" EXTEND UNDER THE ACT? As Brennan J observed in Re McHattan and Collector of Customs (1977) 18 ALR 154 at 157: "Across the pool of sundry interests, the ripples of affection may widely extend." I am in agreement with Olney J and French J that under the Act there is no proper basis for confining the interest required by s 68(2) to an interest in relation to land or waters as defined by s 253. There are several reasons for that conclusion. First, as pointed out by Olney J, s 68(2)(a) makes no reference to an interest in relation to land or waters. Had the legislature intended to confine the entitlement of a person to be made a party under the section to persons having such an interest it would have been likely to provide that a person is a party in relation to the application if: "the person's interests in relation to any of the land or waters in the area over which native title is claimed may be affected by a determination in relation to the application," rather than if: "the person's interests may be affected by a determination in relation to the application." Where the legislature intended to employ the statutory definition of "interest" in s 253 it expressly or implicitly did so: see ss 14(2)(b), 19(2)(b), 21(1)(a), 21(3), 25(1), 26(2)(d) and 62(1)(b). Within Division 1 of Part 3, which is the Division most relevant to the present appeal, the legislature has been careful to use "interest" in relation to land or waters when it intended to do so: see s 62(1)(b). The omission of such terminology in s 68(2) is, in my view, deliberate and supports the conclusion at which Olney J, French J and I have arrived. Secondly, the words employed in s 68(2)(a) or words to like effect commonly appear in a variety of statutes to identify the persons who are given standing or are intended to be afforded an entitlement to be heard. That standing gives effect to a legislative intention to afford persons, whose interests may be or are affected by a decision, an opportunity to be heard in relation to the decision before their interests are affected, or further affected, by it. As already explained, a similar legislative intention is clearly discernible from the Act: see ss 68(2), 69(1), 84, 141, 152, 167(4), 168(2) and 169(3). Even in the area of enforcement or protection of personal rights, standing is given to persons whose freedom of action is challenged by particular conduct or determinations: see Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain at 433. Accordingly, there is no reason in principle to conclude that the words used in s 68(2) should bear a meaning which limits the requisite interest to that defined in s 253. Thirdly, the legislature has referred to a person whose "interests" may be affected, rather than a person whose "interest" in land or waters may be affected, by a determination. In employing the notion of a "person's interests" the legislature has given a clear indication of its intention to reject an approach to affection of interest which requires the interest to be in land or waters covered by the claim. Fourthly, for the reasons expressed by Olney J and French J in the decisions to which I have referred, there is ample reason to conclude that the legislature was aware of the large variety of interests that may be affected by a native title determination including the kind of "interests" considered by their Honours. There is no reason why persons who have had and continue to have regular and lawful use or enjoyment of areas of land or waters covered by a claim under the Act should not be afforded the opportunity of being heard as a party before losing their "right" or having it otherwise affected by a native title determination. Ordinarily, procedural fairness would require that such persons be afforded an opportunity to be heard before their "rights" are curtailed or interfered with by a decision: see Alphapharm at 260. In my view the public has a "right", albeit a public right, in the relevant sense to have access to and to use public land or waters subject to any relevant statutory or other regulatory provisions applying to the particular area and its use. Subject to such provisions, members of the public stand in an analogous position to that considered by the High Court in respect of a member of the public lawfully entering upon a racecourse. In Heatley v Tasmanian Racing & Gaming Commission (1977) 137 CLR 487, in holding that such a person was to be afforded an opportunity to be heard before being warned off, Aickin J (in a passage concurred in by Stephen and Mason JJ) said at 507: "....so long as [the member of the public] is present with the permission of the owner he does have a right as against all the world other than the owner to continue upon the premises and remain there in accordance with whatever the terms may be of the licence originally granted to him. Other persons attempting to eject him from the premises or to interfere with his permitted user would be guilty of trespass to the person and of assault. As against all the world, including the Commission, such a person is lawfully upon the land and entitled to remain there, but for whatever overriding statutory powers may be conferred upon the Commission as an organ of the government." Clearly, such a right is not a proprietary right and does not confer any estate or interest in land: see Stow v Mineral Holdings (Australia) Pty Ltd (1977) 51 ALJR 672. In Stow at 679 Aickin J, in discussing the entitlement of members of the public to use Crown lands, governed by statute, for recreational purposes said: "All members of the public may have the right to go upon such land in the sense that they may freely walk thereon or in defined portions thereof and may resist attempts by the Crown or anyone else to eject them from such land. The fact that some of them are more disposed to go upon the land than others, derive more benefit therefrom and use the statutory right more often than others does not elevate that which is a public right enjoyed by all members of the public equally into a private right capable of being described as an estate or interest in the land." Accordingly, for these reasons, the ripples of affection provided for under s 68(2) clearly extend beyond interests in land or waters as defined in s 253. The more difficult question is the definition of the nature and extent of the interest required by s 68(2). For the reasons expressed earlier the "interest" required for standing under the Act is not as broad as now permitted in the area of public law but may be broader than that required for standing in determining private rights in inter partes litigation. In my view when regard is had to the subject matter, scope and purpose of the relevant provisions of the Act standing as a party under the Act is restricted to persons whose interests · may be genuinely, demonstrably and not indirectly affected by a determination of native title; · are not remote or so insubstantial that it will be mere speculation as to whether and, if so, how they may be actually affected by the determination; · can be defined with reasonable certainty and is in each case readily ascertainable as a matter of fact and law. The legislature did not intend that those who have mere, albeit genuine, intellectual, ideological, conscientious or emotional concerns or interests in relation to a claim or the area covered by it, should be regarded as persons "whose interests may be affected" for the purposes of ss 68 or 84. Accordingly, a determination which may curtail or interfere with the activities of persons who habitually or regularly use or enjoy public land or waters would give rise to a sufficient interest for those persons to have standing as parties under the Act. Obviously questions of degree can be involved in determining issues relating to standing and in particular, whether the interest in question is not indirect or is remote. Such questions will have to be worked out on a case by case basis. In that regard an occasional, rather than a habitual or regular, user of an area covered by a claim is unlikely to have the standing, as a party. As was stated at 405 by Olney J in Yorta Yorta: "It will be a question of fact in each case whether or not a person's interests may be affected by a determination of native title." ARE ORGANISATIONS REPRESENTING PERSONS WHOSE INTEREST MAY BE AFFECTED ENTITLED TO BE PARTIES? If an individual lacks the requisite interest the position cannot be improved or altered by an application to be a party being made by an organisation representing many such individuals. As Stephen J said in Australian Conservation Foundation at 539: "An individual does not suffer such damage as gives rise to standing to sue merely because he voices a particular concern and regards the actions of another as injurious to the object of that concern. That it is a body corporate rather than an individual which seeks to do so cannot of itself alter that position; the fact that that body corporate has as its main object the voicing, and encouragement in the community, or just such a concern no doubt ensures that what it does to give effect to such an object will not be ultra vires; it will not otherwise improve its position." The problem arising in respect of an organisation representing members who have interests that may be affected by a determination is that the interests of the organisation are indirect. Put another way, it is the interests of members, rather than those of an organisation representing them, that may be affected. In a different context it has been recognised that a body whose objects include the advancement of the general interests of its members may lack standing as it does not have a "sufficient material interest, which would be prejudiced", although its members, whose medical practices were directly affected by the operation of a statute, were entitled to maintain the suit challenging its validity: see Federal Council of the British Medical Association in Australia v The Commonwealth (1949) 79 CLR 201 at 257 per Dixon J. A different situation might arise if such organisations themselves conduct activities in the area covered by the claim which may be curtailed, interfered with or otherwise affected by a determination. In such cases there is no reason in principle why such organisations may not be persons whose interests may be affected by a determination. IS THE CENTRE A PERSON WHOSE INTEREST MAY BE AFFECTED BY THE NATIVE TITLE CLAIM? I have concluded that the following principles are applicable in determining standing under the Act: • the interest required to be a party in the NNTT under s 68(2) is not limited to an interest in relation to land or waters as defined by s 253; • the interests of a person that may be affected by a determination for the purposes of s 68(2) are to be genuine, demonstrable, not indirect and not remote or so insubstantial that it will be mere speculation as to whether and, if so, how the interests may be actually affected by the determination; • the requisite interest is one which can be defined with reasonable certainty and is in each case readily ascertainable as a matter of fact and law; • intellectual, emotional, conscientious, ideological or representative interests are not sufficient or relevant interests for the purposes of s 68(2); • whether a person has the requisite or a sufficient interest involves questions of degree and fact in each case. The Centre adduced evidence, upon which it wished to rely, to establish standing. That evidence did not establish that any activities or programs of the Centre will be curtailed, interfered with or otherwise affected by the determination of native title sought in the application. Further, although it can be accepted that the Centre has a real and genuine concern with the ecology and environment in the area covered by the claim such a concern does not, for the purposes of s 68(2), constitute the requisite or a sufficient interest. If the totality of the evidence remains unchanged then, in my view, the Centre has not established that it is entitled to be a party to the claim of the Arakwal people. However, in fairness to the Centre there has been some doubt as to the criteria for standing under the Act. In these circumstances it is my view that, if so advised, the Centre should not be deprived of the opportunity of adducing further evidence before the NNTT in support of its case for standing. THE CENTRE'S FURTHER GROUND OF APPEAL The Centre also argued in support of one further ground of appeal. In substance, the Centre contended that the NNTT can only exercise its power to deny a person standing as a party if a party to the proceeding objects to that person being made a party. This ground of appeal is based on the fact that there was no objection by any party to the Centre's application to be a party in the NNTT. The Centre contended that the Act does not entitle the NNTT, rather than a party, to object to the Centre's application. In my view there is no substance in this ground of appeal. Section 68(2)(a) provides that a person is entitled to be a party if the requirements set out in the sub-section are satisfied. The main requirement is that the person be a person whose interests may be affected by the determination. There is no provision which entitles a person to be a party if all other parties do not oppose that person's application to be a party. Section 69(1) provides for a decision of the NNTT on a person's entitlement to be a party to be made if it is necessary to do so. In my view, in the statutory context, "it is necessary" to make such a decision if a circumstance arises which, in the opinion of the NNTT, requires such a decision. That is precisely what has occurred in the present case. CONCLUSION The Centre has succeeded in establishing that, in arriving at its decision, the NNTT erred in law. For the reasons I have set out it is appropriate to order that the matter be remitted to the NNTT to determine the question of the Centre's standing pursuant to ss 68 and 69 of the Act in accordance with law. Accordingly, the Centre is entitled to an order that the appeal be allowed and the decision be set aside. Although the NSW Minister has as a matter of substance, largely succeeded in respect of the contentions advanced on the appeal, in my view the costs orders proposed by Lockhart J are, in all the circumstances, fair. Accordingly, I agree with those orders. In my view the principles I have enunciated give effect to the legislative intent and meet the consideration set out in the preamble to the Act that the special procedure under the Act is available: "... for the just and proper ascertainment of native title rights and interests which will ensure that, if possible, this is done by conciliation and, if not, in a manner that has due regard to their unique character." Once it is accepted that standing is not limited to persons having an interest in relation to land or waters, as defined by s 253, it must follow that many claims to native title might affect the interests of a large number of persons or entities in a multiplicity of ways. However, it is relevant to observe that the nature and extent of the interests that may be affected arise from and inhere in the nature of native title. In that regard the potential affection of interests in each case will depend largely on the formulation and ambit of the native title claim. A claim for exclusive occupation and use of land and waters habitually or regularly used by members of the public for leisure or sporting activities can affect a wider variety and number of interests than a non-exclusive claim. Under the statutory scheme it is "just and proper" for all persons whose "interests" may be affected by such a claim, irrespective of the number or variety of such persons, to be afforded the opportunity to be a party and to be heard before their "interests" are finally affected by the determination of the claim. Finally, I would add that, if it be relevant, I do not accept that a more expansive view of standing would assist the reconciliation process. It takes little imagination to conceive of the variety of ideological or conscientious interests or groups that may be genuinely and deeply committed to supporting or opposing native title claims in particular areas of Australia. To afford such interests or groups the standing of a party under the Act is a recipe for promoting, rather than resolving, differences. If the public interest can be a relevant factor in determining a party's attitude to a native title claim, that aspect is dealt with under the Act by giving standing, as of right, to the relevant Commonwealth, State or Territory Ministers. I certify that this and the preceding twenty-seven pages are a true copy of the Reasons for Judgment herein of the Honourable Justice Merkel Associate: Dated: 20 August 1997 Counsel for the Applicant: J E Stuckey-Clarke

Alphapharm Pty Ltd v SmithKline v Beecham

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Judgment (15 paragraphs)

Legislation Cited (8)

Cases Cited (30)

Cited By (16)