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Commonwealth of Australia

 

 

Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999

 

 

Making of a Threat Abatement Plan–Section 270B

 

 

I, JOSH FRYDENBERG, Minister for the Environment and Energy, pursuant to section 270B of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999, make the Threat abatement plan for infection of amphibians with chytrid fungus resulting in chytridiomycosis (2016) for the purpose of reducing the effect of the key threatening process as specified below:

 

 

The Threat abatement plan for infection of amphibians with chytrid fungus resulting in chytridiomycosis (2016) will come into force on the day after the plan is registered on the Federal Register of Legislation.

 

 

Dated this  26th day of August 2016.

 

 

 

 

 

 

JOSH FRYDENBERG

 

Minister for the Environment and Energy

 

 

Threat abatement plan

 For infection of amphibians with chytrid fungus resulting in chytridiomycosis (2016)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

© Copyright Commonwealth of Australia, 2016.

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The DRAFT Threat abatement plan for infection of amphibians with chytrid fungus resulting in chytridiomycosis is licensed by the Commonwealth of Australia for use under a Creative Commons By Attribution 4.0 Australia licence with the exception of the Coat of Arms of the Commonwealth of Australia, the logo of the agency responsible for publishing the report, content supplied by third parties, and any images depicting people. For licence conditions see:

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

 

This report should be attributed as ‘DRAFT Threat abatement plan for infection of amphibians with chytrid fungus resulting in chytridiomycosis, Commonwealth of Australia 2016’.

 

The Commonwealth of Australia has made all reasonable efforts to identify content supplied by third parties.

The contents of this document have been compiled using a range of source materials and is valid as at January 2016.

 

The views and opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the Australian Government or the Minister for the Environment.

While reasonable efforts have been made to ensure that the contents of this publication are factually correct, the Commonwealth does not accept responsibility for the accuracy or completeness of the contents, and shall not be liable for any loss or damage that may be occasioned directly or indirectly through the use of, or reliance on, the contents of this publication.

Contents

 

Introduction

Background – the previous threat abatement plan

This threat abatement plan

1. Threat abatement plan for infection of amphibians with chytrid fungus resulting in chytridiomycosis

1.1 Threat abatement plans and implementation

1.2 The pathogen – history and spread

1.3 Impacts of Chytrid

1.4. Managing the threat

1.5. Climate Change

2. Objectives and actions

Objective 1: Improve understanding of the extent and impact of infection by amphibian chytrid fungus and reduce its spread to uninfected areas and populations

Objective 2: Identify and prioritise key threatened amphibian species, populations and geographical areas and improve their level of protection by implementing coordinated, cost-effective, on-ground management strategies

Objective 3: Facilitate collaborative applied research that can be used to inform and support improved management of amphibian chytrid fungus

Objective 4: Build scientific capacity and promote communication among stakeholders

3. Duration, Review, Funding and Implementation

3.1. Duration and review of the plan

3.2. Funding and implementation

Glossary

References

Attachment A: Map of the distribution of chytridiomycosis (with dates of first detection)

 

 

 

Introduction

This threat abatement plan (TAP) has been developed to address the key threatening process ‘Infection of amphibians with chytrid fungus resulting in chytridiomycosis’, which is listed under the Commonwealth  Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act).

The TAP establishes a national framework to guide and coordinate Australia’s response to chytrid fungus. It sets out the actions necessary to abate impacts of the listed key threatening process and was developed to comply with the requirements under the EPBC Act for the development of threat abatement plans. It identifies the research, management and other actions needed in Australia’s response to this pathogen and replaces the threat abatement plan published in 2006 (Department of the Environment and Heritage, 2006).

The plan has been developed with the involvement and cooperation of a broad range of stakeholders, but the making or adoption of this plan does not necessarily indicate the commitment of individual stakeholders to undertaking any specific actions. Proposed actions may be subject to modification over the life of the plan due to developments in understanding of the organism and its impacts.

The Australian Government Department of the Environment (the Department) is responsible for preparing this TAP. Its development has been informed by:

• the 2006 threat abatement plan (DEH, 2006) and its review and evaluation by the Australian Government in 2012 (DSEWPaC, 2012), and

• information provided by key stakeholders between 2011 and 2016.

 

Chytridiomycosis is an infectious disease that affects amphibians worldwide. It is caused by the chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis), a fungus capable of causing sporadic deaths in some amphibian populations and 100 per cent mortality in others. The disease has been implicated in the mass die-offs and species extinctions of frogs that have occurred since the 1970s. However, its origin remains uncertain and continues to be investigated (James et al., 2009).

 

Eradication of this widespread and continuously present disease is not currently possible in wild amphibian populations. Given that the amphibian chytrid fungus has spread to almost all climatically suitable areas in eastern Australia, it has become increasingly important to: (1) better understand and mitigate the impact on key affected species in chytrid positive areas in order to prevent further extinctions from chytridiomycosis; and (2), monitor and mitigate the risk of spread and impact in high risk chytrid negative areas (e.g. Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area). Many amphibian species persist despite infection with chytrid fungus, particularly in Western Australia — the reasons for this are not fully understood and warrant further investigation.

A modified approach to respond to the negative impacts of this disease on amphibians in Australia is needed; one that involves identifying and reducing impacts on key environmental assets (EPBC Act listed species and other priority amphibian species) and requires national coordination.

The Department recognises that a number of the state and territory governments that own land impacted by chytrid fungus have developed management plans and operational guides to abate this threat within their own jurisdictions. This TAP aims to complement state and territory approaches to managing chytridiomycosis.

Background – the previous threat abatement plan

‘Infection of amphibians with chytrid fungus resulting in chytridiomycosis’ was listed in July 2002 as a key threatening process under the EPBC Act.  A key threatening process is defined as a process that ‘threatens or may threaten the survival, abundance or evolutionary development of a native species or ecological community’.  The first TAP for ’Infection of amphibians with chytrid fungus resulting in chytridiomycosis’ was prepared in 2006 (DEH, 2006) and was reviewed in 2012 in accordance with requirements under section 279(2) of the EPBC Act.

 

The review of the 2006 TAP (DSEWPaC, 2012) was performed by the Department in consultation with key stakeholders and the members of the National Chytrid Working Group (convened by the Australian Government). It identified the progress against the plan’s actions, objectives and goals over the period 2006­–2012. 

The review found that since 2006 some progress has been made in the implementation of the key actions identified in that TAP. For example: a national map of the distribution of chytridiomycosis is available; historical surveys have been completed; reliable diagnostic laboratory test protocols have been established; the biology of the pathogen has been investigated and is now much better understood; and many amphibian conservation managers in the state organisations are collaborating on captive breeding programs for threatened amphibians. The Australian Government also funded other projects targeted specifically to implement key TAP actions, such as: the development of hygiene protocols; guidelines for captive husbandry; a rapid in-field diagnostic test; a national disease strategy; and the formation of the National Chytrid Working Group (see Action 4.3).

However, the two main goals of the TAP were only partially achieved.  Firstly, the further spread of amphibian chytrid fungus within Australia has slowed to some extent but surveys revealed that the disease had already reached almost all climatically suitable areas in Australia by 2006. Secondly, the impact of infection with amphibian chytrid fungus on populations that are currently infected has only been somewhat decreased.

As a result of the review, in December 2012, the Minister decided that:

1.        the TAP should be revised to provide a more realistic and targeted plan which identifies and prioritises key actions and provides national leadership on multi-jurisdictional issues that cross-cut several species; and
2.        a threat abatement advice should be prepared to provide direction on specific actions and research that are required to abate the threat to biodiversity from chytrid fungus.

This threat abatement plan

This document replaces the 2006 threat abatement plan. It incorporates the knowledge gained in the intervening years and has been modified in line with recommendations from the review. This plan was developed in consultation with key stakeholders and the members of the National Chytrid Working Group.

The threat abatement plan aims to guide the responsible use of public resources to achieve the best outcome for native amphibian species, ecological communities and other matters of national environmental significance (such as World Heritage Areas) threatened by chytrid fungus. The plan seeks to achieve these outcomes by recognising the opportunities and limitations that exist, and ensuring that field experience and research are used to further improve management of threatened amphibian species. The activities and priorities under the threat abatement plan will need to adapt to changes as they occur.

The TAP is expected to maintain the profile of the issue of amphibian chytrid fungus, provide direction for priority setting of national funding programs and guidance for state, territory and local governments to prioritise and support threat abatement actions in their management programs. It also contains information on priorities for research to enable universities and other research facilities to target research projects towards addressing gaps in knowledge.

 

Although the Minister had initially agreed to develop a separate threat abatement plan and threat abatement advice, the drafting of the two documents revealed significant duplication. Recent advances in the understanding of chytrid fungus enabled longer term research priorities to be developed and included as part of this TAP, with the result that the threat abatement advice became redundant.

Due to resource constraints and current priorities within the Department, the scientifically detailed background document that accompanied the previous TAP will not be updated.

1. Threat abatement plan for infection of amphibians with chytrid fungus resulting in chytridiomycosis

1.1 Threat abatement plans and implementation

The EPBC Act prescribes the process, content and consultation to be followed when making a TAP to address a listed key threatening process. Under Section 270(A) of the EPBC Act, the Australian Government:

• develops TAPs where the Minister agrees that the making of a TAP is a feasible, efficient and effective way to abate a key threatening process.

Under Section 269 of the EPBC Act, the Australian Government:

• implements TAPs to the extent they apply in areas under Australian Government control and responsibility. Australian Government agencies must not take any actions that contravene a TAP.

• seeks the cooperation of the affected jurisdictions in situations where a TAP applies outside Australian Government areas in states or territories, with a view to jointly implementing the TAP.

The success of this TAP will depend on a high level of cooperation between all key stakeholders, including:

• Australian Government departments and agencies

• state and territory conservation and natural resource management agencies

• local governments

• research and zoological institutions

• the general community, including non-government environmental organisations and private conservation land management bodies, private landholders, Indigenous communities and natural resource management groups.

It will be important that land managers assess the threats and impacts of chytrid fungus and allocate adequate resources in order to work towards: effective on-ground prevention of spread and management of impacts; improving the effectiveness of prevention and management programs; and measuring and assessing outcomes.

In order to successfully implement this TAP, the Department will:

• coordinate its implementation as it applies to Commonwealth land and act in accordance with the provisions of the TAP, as required under the EPBC Act

• seek stronger coordination of national action on chytrid fungus

• draw on expertise from state and territory agencies and non-government organisations

• encourage involvement of key stakeholders and experts in chytrid-related research and management.

The Australian Government will monitor the uptake and effectiveness of management actions by all parties as part of a review of the TAP under Section 279 of the EPBC Act. Where the Australian Government and state and territory governments have mutual obligations, negotiation of appropriate actions and funding of management actions will be undertaken.

 

1.2 The pathogen – history and spread

First discovered in dead and dying frogs in Queensland in 1993, chytridiomycosis is a highly infectious disease of amphibians, caused by the amphibian chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (B. dendrobatidis). Since 1993, research has shown that the fungus is widespread across Australia and has been present in the country since the 1970s. The disease is also found in Africa, the Americas, Europe, New Zealand and Asia (DSEWPaC, 2013).

Chytridiomycosis has been found in all Australian states and in the Australian Capital Territory, but not in the Northern Territory. Currently, it appears to be mainly confined to the relatively cool and wet areas of Australia, such as along the Great Dividing Range and adjacent coastal areas in the eastern mainland states of Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, eastern and central Tasmania, southern South Australia, and south-western Western Australia. However, it has also been found in lowland streams in the Queensland Wet Tropics World Heritage Area.

Very few areas of suitable host environment remain uninfected in Australia—high risk chytrid negative areas include the World Heritage Area in south-west Tasmania and the Iron Range on Cape York. There are also some pockets of disease-free areas within infected regions due to the isolated nature of these amphibian populations (DSEWPaC, 2013) and  relatively warm and saline wetlands may also provide refuges for local populations (Heard et al., 2015)

Chytridiomycosis/B. dendrobatidis is listed as a notifiable disease in Australia’s National List of Reportable Diseases of Aquatic Animals and by the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE, formerly Office International des Epizooties) in the Aquatic Animal Health Code.

1.3 Impacts of Chytrid

1.3.1 Epidemiology and ecological impacts

Chytrid fungi typically live in water or soil, although some are parasites of plants, crustaceans and insects. They reproduce asexually and have spores that ‘swim’ through the water. The amphibian chytrid fungus is thought to be the most significant disease affecting biodiversity of vertebrates (Skerratt et al. 2007). Individual frogs contract the disease via contact with infected animals or contaminated water containing spores from infected animals (DSEWPaC, 2013).

Chytridiomycosis mostly affects amphibian species that are associated with permanent water (streams, moist bogs, soaks and ponds). The disease is strongly mitigated by high temperatures, and disease outbreaks tend to occur seasonally (Woodhams and Alford, 2005). However, much is still unknown about the fungus and the disease in the wild, including reasons for the death of hosts, how the fungus survives in the absence of amphibian populations and how it spreads (DSEWPaC, 2013). The fungus can infect freshwater crayfish in North America and this could be a mechanism for its spread and maintenance where amphibians are no longer present (McMahon et al., 2012).

Interactions between the fungus and environmental factors are known to be important. For example, Australian upland populations of frogs have experienced the greatest number of declines and extinctions, leading to the suggestion that the cooler environmental and climatic conditions are more favourable for the growth and persistence of B. dendrobatidis (Scheele et al., 2014).  Amphibian immune systems may be compromised at low temperatures, and other stressors such as chemicals/pesticides or habitat destruction and disturbance could have synergistic effects on disease outcomes and species persistence at a regional level (Buck et al., 2015).

The fungus invades the surface layers of the frog’s skin, causing damage to the outer keratin layer. Amphibian skin is unique because it is physiologically active, allowing the skin to tightly regulate respiration, water, and electrolytes. The fungus kills amphibians by disrupting the normal function of the skin resulting in electrolyte depletion and osmotic imbalance (Voyles et al., 2009). In some cases, this appears to cause suppression of the nervous system of the animal and breathing starts to slow down; death occurs when the nervous system reaches a point of paralysis and breathing and the heartbeat stops. Physical signs of paralysis can affect the nervous system as the disease progresses and in some individuals, the toes are curled and the head is tilted sharply forward by the time of death.

In some frog populations, the disease causes 100 per cent mortality, while in other populations, it causes very few deaths. Further, some amphibian species appear to be highly susceptible and die quickly, whilst others seem to be less susceptible (Kriger and Hero, 2006). With antifungal and supportive treatment, infected adult frogs and tadpoles in captive populations can fully recover from the disease.

 

Of note, the situation in Western Australia is quite different to the eastern states; although chytrid fungus is present in the majority of south-western Australian frog species, the impacts on these species have been non-catastrophic and stable populations persist. At present, it is not known why this difference between eastern and western Australia exists, but several theories including environmental differences and B. dendrobatidis strain variations have been suggested (Riley et al., 2013).

1.3.2. Impacts on matters of national environmental significance

EPBC Act listed species, ecological communities and world heritage areas are matters of national environmental significance protected under the Act. This document has been prepared in compliance with existing management plans for relevant world heritage areas that provide habitat for amphibian species, e.g. the Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area (DPIW, 2008).

‘Infection of amphibians with chytrid fungus resulting in chytridiomycosis’ is listed as a key threatening process under the EPBC Act.

The key threatening process is eligible for listing under the EPBC Act as it meets all criteria for listing:

1.        it could cause a native species or an ecological community to become eligible for listing in any category, other than conservation dependent; or
2.        it could cause a listed threatened species or a listed threatened ecological community to become eligible to be listed in another category representing a higher degree of endangerment; or
3.        it adversely affects 2 or more listed threatened species (other than conservation dependent species) or 2 or more listed threatened ecological communities.

In Australia, the fungus has been directly implicated in the extinction of at least four species and the dramatic decline of at least 10 others, including Litoria nannotis (waterfall frog), Litoria rheocola (common mistfrog), Litoria spenceri (spotted tree frog) and Litoria dayi (previously Nyctimystes dayi) (lace-eyed tree frog). The four extinct species are from Queensland and include Rheobatrachus silus (southern gastric-brooding frog, last seen in 1981), Rheobatrachus vitellinus (northern gastric-brooding frog, 1985), Taudactylus acutirostris (sharp-snouted day frog, 1997) and Taudactylus diurnus (southern day frog, 1979). Many persisting species remain at lower abundance and have smaller distributions relative to their historical range. Other species, such as P. pengilleyi and P. corroboree are continuing to decline, with ongoing significant mortality decades after introduction. However, there are early signs that some frog populations are developing resistance to the chytrid fungus.  For example, in parts of Queensland’s Wet Tropics, L. rheocola and L. nannotis have survived at high altitude sites from which they had previously disappeared.

Table A provides a list of amphibian species that are considered to be under threat from the amphibian chytrid fungus, the immediate level of threat of possible extinction for these species (Skerratt et al., 2016) and their current listing status under the EPBC Act (not all are currently listed). Table B lists the amphibian species that have gone extinct.

 

1.4. Managing the threat

While eradication of this widespread and continuously present disease has not been possible in wild amphibians, an array of well-targeted actions, combined with well-developed management plans based on current knowledge, can assist in reducing the impact of the disease on threatened amphibian populations. This is particularly the case for present and future captive breeding programs.

Currently there are no proven methods to control this disease in the wild (DSEWPaC, 2013). For threatened frog species, emergency measures are needed to increase population sizes through strategies including captive insurance colonies, and assisted colonisation. It is vital that coordinated captive management programs establish captive populations in a timely and strategic manner to avoid crisis situations and possible extinctions. Captive husbandry techniques for each at-risk species should be developed and documented and genetic banking undertaken.

Chytrid fungus is now established in most of the climatically suitable areas in Australia. Despite this, considerable efforts continue to protect the few remaining isolated uninfected amphibian populations, and some uninfected areas such as the Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area (Murray et al. 2011a, 2011b). Some state governments have developed policy documents that contain strategies to limit the risk of spreading chytrid fungus. However, there has been little coordination between the states in policy development, risk analysis, surveying efforts for the presence and spread of chytrid fungus or limiting the impact of the disease once it has spread. Therefore, facilitation of coordination among jurisdictions would be of value in ensuring a consistent and high standard of threat abatement along with maximising cost efficiency. It would also help to identify if any high-risk areas have been overlooked to date.

Understanding the ecology and characteristics of the disease and how it relates to general environmental conditions, such as temperature, is important when developing effective management strategies (Alford et al., 2010). The mechanisms that underlie some amphibian species’ resistance/ immunity (Clemann et al., 2009/10) and ability to co-exist with chytrid fungus at the species and individual level and the role this apparent resistance plays in allowing populations to persist and even recover from the impact of chytridiomycosis (Brannelly et al., 2015) (Rowley and Alford, 2013) should be further investigated. This knowledge could be used to improve management strategies, which are important for ensuring successful reintroductions and long term threat abatement.

As chytrid fungus strains vary in virulence (Rosenblum et al., 2013), understanding the differences in strains, mapping their location and reducing the risk of spread between infected areas is also important (Murray et al., 2011b).  Developing a greater understanding of how the impacts of chytridiomycosis on infected wild populations can be better mitigated would help reduce the impact of the disease.

Monitoring and surveillance is necessary to:

• determine the impact of the disease on frog populations, including those populations that appear to be recovering naturally;
• detect new outbreaks in currently uninfected populations or locations of unknown disease status; and
• monitor the progress and success of management strategies (including broader environmental conditions) in order to provide the necessary feedback for adaptive management.

 

1.5. Climate Change

 

It is difficult to predict how a changing climate will impact the threat posed by the chytrid fungus, but it is likely that the distribution of the fungus and virulence of chytridiomycosis disease will be somewhat altered as temperatures increase and rainfall patterns change. Further, environmental conditions have strong effects on host-pathogen dynamics (Woodhams and Alford, 2005). With predicted average temperature increases of between 1°C and 5°C in Australia by the year 2070 (CSIRO and Bureau of Meteorology 2007–2012), it is possible that chytrid fungus will extend into areas that were previously unsuitable for the establishment of the pathogen. In contrast, some areas predicted to have higher temperatures and reduced rainfall could become less conducive to the disease. Some models suggest that higher temperatures associated with climate change may reduce the range suitable for chytrid fungus, as some areas will become too warm for chytrid development and transmission, although range expansion may occur in the long term (Rodder et al., 2010).

 

The effects of climate change are likely to be variable among species and sites. For example, increases in cloud or canopy cover could increase the effects of the disease on susceptible individuals (Puschendorf et al., 2011) but higher temperatures may lower the overall mortality rate (Rowley and Alford, 2013). The effect that changes in hydrology may have on the impact of chytrid fungus on susceptible amphibians (Sapsford et al., 2013) is even harder to predict than changes in air temperature. Additionally, the impacts of climate change, such as higher temperatures, more erratic rainfall, more disease vectors and reduction in the food supply (i.e. insects), may also increase amphibian susceptibility to chytrid fungus, due to potential increases in background environmental stress.

2. Objectives and actions

The overarching goal of this TAP is to minimise the adverse impacts of amphibian chytrid fungus on affected native species and ecological communities. To achieve this goal, the TAP has four main objectives that were developed in consultation with experts. These objectives are to:

1. improve understanding of the extent and impact of infection by amphibian chytrid fungus and reduce its spread to uninfected areas and populations

2. identify and prioritise key threatened amphibian species, populations and geographical areas and improve their level of protection by implementing coordinated, cost-effective on-ground management strategies

3. facilitate collaborative applied research that can be used to inform and support improved management of amphibian chytrid fungus

4. build scientific capacity and promote communication among stakeholders.

Each objective is accompanied by a set of actions that, when implemented, will help to achieve the goal of the TAP. Performance indicators (outcomes and outputs) have been established for each objective.

Objective 1: Improve understanding of the extent and impact of infection by amphibian chytrid fungus and reduce its spread to uninfected areas and populations

Gaining information on the extent of infection and the location of uninfected populations and areas will help to inform the planning of surveillance and management activities.

 

 

Objective 2: Identify and prioritise key threatened amphibian species, populations and geographical areas and improve their level of protection by implementing coordinated, cost-effective, on-ground management strategies

This objective aims to identify and prioritise amphibian species and populations that may need protection and prevent additional amphibian species from going extinct due to the impacts of chytrid fungus. It also aims to identify and prioritise the particularly sensitive geographical areas and populations at all levels (Commonwealth, state and territory, regional and local) where management activities need to be focused, such as world heritage areas.

Monitoring and management activities also need to be conducted in a coordinated manner to maximise limited resources and achieve effective outcomes. This includes sharing information, coordinating activities across jurisdictions, and applying coordinated, scientifically-based management to high-priority areas that contain threatened species. The Australian Government has a responsibility to manage the impacts of chytrid fungus on Commonwealth land and to protect matters of national environmental significance, such as the contribution of existing amphibian species and populations to World Heritage values under the EPBC Act.

A number of guidelines and protocols are required for the successful coordination of management activities to reduce the impact of chytrid fungus. Although many state governments have developed policy documents that contain management strategies, there is a lack of coordination between states in their application and implementation. Linking chytrid management strategies to threatened species recovery plans and relevant habitat management and conservation plans would help to coordinate conservation efforts and maintain awareness of any listed species or ecological communities potentially affected by management actions. The EPBC Act listed Threatened Ecological Community — “Alpine Sphagnum Bogs and Associated Fens” is of particular interest due to the presence of many listed threatened frog species. The National Recovery Plan for the Alpine Sphagnum Bogs and Associated Fens can be found at http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/publications/recovery/alpine-sphagnum-bogs-associated-fens

 

 

Objective 3: Facilitate collaborative applied research that can be used to inform and support improved management of amphibian chytrid fungus

To develop the most effective management strategies for abating the threat of chytrid fungus and ensure the continued existence of sustainable populations of at-risk amphibians in Australia, joint/collaborative research will be important to inform and update key knowledge of the pathogen. Despite improved understanding of the chytrid fungus through ongoing research effort, there are still significant gaps in knowledge that are hampering the success of management programs. This includes knowledge on: the different strains of the fungus; levels of virulence; mechanisms for resistance to the disease; treatment options; husbandry methods for individual species; environmental toxins and the potential of other species (e.g. freshwater crayfish) to act as reservoirs or vectors for transmission of the fungus.

Without this information, there is a risk that management efforts will be misdirected or ineffective.

Objective 4: Build scientific capacity and promote communication among stakeholders

Building coordination and communication between key stakeholders and researchers is expected to improve the likelihood of the success of this TAP. In particular, this will assist by facilitating access to data and alerting stakeholders to new sites of infection, as well as encouraging increased support for implementing management actions. For researchers, it would allow greater collaboration, build capacity and reduce unintentional duplication of efforts.

To achieve improvements and maximum efficiency in management activities, it is accepted that sharing information and coordinating activities across jurisdictions will result in the greatest conservation gains. Applying coordinated, scientifically-based management to high-priority areas that contain key threatened species is vitally important to protect these amphibian species.

 

 

3. Duration, Review, Funding and Implementation

3.1. Duration and review of the plan

Section 279 of the EPBC Act provides for the review of this TAP at any time and requires that it be reviewed by the Minister at intervals of no longer than five years. Following the review of TAP the Minister’s scientific advisory committee (the Threatened Species Scientific Committee), will be provided with updates of actions taken under this TAP to aid them in advising the Minister on the effectiveness of the TAP in abating the key threatening process.

 

3.2. Funding and implementation

It is important to note that TAPs are not linked directly to any Australian Government funding programs. Each financial year, the Australian Government funds TAP development and implementation as part of a broader budget outcome related to biodiversity conservation (www.environment.gov.au/about/publications/budget/index.html). The Department allocates its annual budget to a range of competing biodiversity conservation priorities.

This TAP provides a framework for undertaking targeted priority actions. Budgetary and other constraints may affect the achievement of the objectives of this plan, and as knowledge changes, proposed actions may be modified over the life of the plan. The Commonwealth is committed, via the EPBC Act, to implement the threat abatement plan to the extent to which it applies in Commonwealth areas. However, it should be noted that the Australian Government is unable to provide funding to cover all actions in this threat abatement plan across all of Australia and requires financial and implementation support from stakeholders. Partnerships amongst and between governments, non-government organisations, community groups and individuals will be fundamental to successfully delivering significant reductions in the threat posed by chytrid.

 

Investment in many of the TAP actions will be determined by the level of resources that stakeholders commit to management of the problem. The Australian Government recognises that the capacity of each state or territory government to implement this TAP will be dependent on the resources of that state or territory and the methods of implementation they choose to adopt.

 

Given the extent of the chytrid fungus across Australia, an indicative estimate of the costs involved to undertake the actions outlined in this plan is provided below. The costs provided will be highly variable depending on facilities, location and availability of skilled personnel. Some projects may be suitable to be conducted by PhD students (or even volunteers) at a lower cost. Anyone looking to implement an action is strongly recommended to undertake their own budget exercise for their particular circumstances and outcomes sought.

 

 

 

 

Table A: Amphibian species that are currently assessed to be under threat from the impacts of amphibian chytrid fungus

CE = critically endangered; E = endangered; V = vulnerable

 

 

Table B: Amphibian species listed under the EPBC Act as having gone extinct from the impacts of amphibian chytrid fungus

 

Glossary

 

 

References

Alford RA, Skerratt LF, Berger L, Speare R, Bell S, Kenyon N, Rowley JJL, Hauselberger K, Young S, Voyles J, Puschendorf R, Cashins S, Webb R, Campbell R and Mendez D (2010). Final Report to Department of the Environment and Heritage on work completed for RFT 43/2004, “Experimental research to obtain a better understanding of the pathogenesis of chytridiomycosis, and the susceptibility and resistance of key amphibian species to chytridiomycosis in Australia”. Accessed Mar 2016. Available from: http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/invasive-species/publications/experimental-research-pathogenesis-chytridiomycosis.

Bosch J, Sanchez-Tome E, Fernandez-Loras A, Oliver JA, Fisher MC and Garner TWJ (2015). Successful elimination of a lethal wildlife infectious disease in nature. Biology Letters, Vol 11, November 2015.

Brannelly LA, Hunter DA, Skerratt LF, Scheele BC, Lenger D, McFadden S, Harlow PS and Berger L (2015). Chytrid infection and post-release fitness in the reintroduction of an endangered alpine tree frog. Animal Conservation, doi: 10.1111/acv.12230.

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Attachment A: Map of the distribution of chytridiomycosis (with dates of first detection)

 

 

Fig1

© Copyright, Murray et al. (2010)