Mawson’s Huts Historic Site Heritage Management Plan 2025
I, Murray Watt, Minister for the Environment and Water, make the following instrument pursuant to sections 324S and 341S of the of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999.
This instrument commences the day after it is registered.
Main Hut at Mawson’s Huts Historic Site, David Killick, 2021.
Ownership of intellectual property rights
Unless otherwise noted, copyright (and any other intellectual property rights) in this publication is owned by the Commonwealth of Australia (referred to as the Commonwealth).
Cataloguing data
This publication (and any material sourced from it) should be attributed as: DCCEEW 2025, Mawson’s Huts Historic Site Heritage Management Plan 2025, Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water, Canberra. CC BY 4.0.
The Australian Government acting through the Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water has exercised due care and skill in preparing and compiling the information and data in this publication. Notwithstanding, the Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water, its employees and advisers disclaim all liability, including liability for negligence and for any loss, damage, injury, expense or cost incurred by any person as a result of accessing, using or relying on any of the information or data in this publication to the maximum extent permitted by law.
Acknowledgement of Country
Our Department recognises the First Peoples of this nation and their ongoing connection to culture and country. We acknowledge them as the Traditional Owners, Custodians and Lore Keepers of the world's oldest living culture and pay respects to their Elders past, present and emerging.
While Antarctica has no known Indigenous population, the First Peoples of Australia and lutruwita, Tasmania – the Palawa people – hold a meaningful, established connection with the sea and sky that carries weather patterns and species from Antarctica to Australia and its sub-Antarctic islands. Fundamentally, these Peoples possess a deep understanding of the animals, the swells, the winds, and the nuyina (Aurora Australis), that link the frozen continent of Antarctica to Australia.
Acknowledgements
This management plan draws on the expertise and the work of many people who have been involved over several decades in the protection of Mawson’s Huts Historic Site. Contributors include: heritage specialists; expedition personnel; staff at the Australian Antarctic Division (AAD) and Heritage Division of the Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water (the Department); and members of the public and organisations.
This management plan is based on the original Significance Assessment, and subsequent Conservation Management Plan prepared by Godden Mackay Logan Heritage Consultants with the support of the Mawson’s Huts Foundation in 2001, which justified the place’s listings on the National Heritage List and the Commonwealth Heritage List. As required under Sections 324S(6)(a) and 341S(6)(b) of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) and Regulations 10.01A and 10.03C of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act Regulations 2000 (EPBC Regulations), a draft plan was prepared and public comment sought.
This plan has been prepared to meet the EPBC Act obligations arising from the National and Commonwealth Heritage listing of Mawson’s Huts Historic Site, taking into consideration comments received during the public consultation period. While the AAD is responsible for the contents of this plan, it acknowledges the direct and indirect contributions of a diverse community of interest.
Executive Summary
Mawson’s Huts Historic Site is located at Cape Denison, George V Land, Australian Antarctic Territory, some 3000 km south of Hobart, Australia. The site is on Commonwealth land and the Commonwealth of Australia is the owner of the site, its structures and its objects. The Australian Antarctic Division of the Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water is the organisation which manages the site.
Mawson’s Huts Historic Site covers approximately 130 hectares and is the setting of the historic structures and artefacts of the Main Base of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition (AAE) of 1911-1914, led by Dr (later Sir) Douglas Mawson. The AAE was unique as the only expedition organised, manned and supported predominantly by Australians during the Heroic Era of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century of Antarctic exploration. This historic site at Commonwealth Bay is one of only six remaining from this era across the continent.
Key attributes of the site include four historic huts – Main Hut, Magnetograph House, Absolute Magnetic Hut and Transit Hut, – cultural heritage artefacts, wireless mast ruins, survey markers, a memorial cross, and a proclamation pole and canister. The Official National and Commonwealth Heritage Values of the site include its association with: the foundation for Australia’s claim to the Australian Antarctic Territory; the only Antarctic expedition mounted and undertaken by Australians during the Heroic Era; one of six surviving Heroic Era expedition bases; research potential to provide interpretation of what life was like during the expedition; the unique design and form of the buildings; the evocative cultural landscape in which the historic structures are installed; the patination of the historic structures that demonstrates significant time elapsed; the achievements of the AAE; and the memory of members of the AAE.
National recognition of the site’s cultural heritage significance was formalised by its inclusion on the Register of the National Estate in 1980 (now a non-statutory archive), the Commonwealth Heritage List in 2004 and the National Heritage List in 2005.
The cultural heritage significance of the site has also been recognised internationally in the context of the Antarctic Treaty system. Since 1972 the huts have been designated as a Historic Site and Monument (HSM), and since 2004 the site has been designated as an Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA).
Under the guidance of successive Heritage Management Plans, major conservation works have been carried out at the site including, but not limited to, the over-cladding of Main Hut, ice removal from the interior, fitting of a frame to help stabilise the Transit Hut, and artefact conservation. The Mawson’s Huts Foundation have been integral to the successful delivery of these conservation works to date. To continue to inform and support the protection of the recognised values of the site, a comprehensive on-site Heritage Assessment will be undertaken within the first two years of this Plan’s making to inform further monitoring and analysis of key pressures at the site, and to support management decisions.
This plan provides the framework to guide management decisions, including on- and off- site actions, to protect and conserve the National Heritage, Commonwealth Heritage and other values of Mawson’s Huts Historic Site. It sets out how the National and Commonwealth Heritage values of the site, as described on the National Heritage List and Commonwealth Heritage List, will be managed and protected.
The overarching conservation philosophy in managing Mawson’s Huts Historic Site is to protect and conserve its heritage values, while allowing the fabric of the site to represent both a moment in time, and the passage of time.
Ongoing pressures on the National and Commonwealth Heritage values of the site include significant challenges in accessing the site which is not within direct shipping routes to Australian Antarctic stations, and consequently requires resourcing for dedicated voyages, diversions, or support from other vessels to reach the site. Developing pressures on these values of the site are primarily environmental. The impacts of a changing climate are not yet entirely known, but extreme wind speeds, snow and ice melt, relative humidity and salt all pose threats to the longevity of the historic fabric; as well as pose a further obstacle to site access. Potential future pressures, such as increased tourism activity at the site, also present a challenge for management to balance conservation of its recognised values with access to the vulnerable historic structures and objects. During the life of this plan, there will be further monitoring and analysis of key pressures.
Management actions within this plan will help to ensure that the heritage values of Mawson’s Huts Historic Site are identified, protected, conserved, presented and transmitted to all generations.
Established in 1995 it is a repository for scientific data arising from the Australian Antarctic program.
AAP
The Australian Antarctic Program coordinates Australia’s activities in Antarctica, from scientific research through to logistics and infrastructure works
AHC
The Australian Heritage Council was established in 2003 under the EPBC Act as the heritage advisory body to the Federal Minister responsible for heritage matters.
ANARE
The Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions is a historical reference to past field operations of the AAD between 1947 and the early 2000s.
Antarctic Treaty
An international treaty for the Antarctic region that came into force in 1961 and established an international framework for the governance of the continent (the Antarctic Treaty system). Under the Treaty, provisions have been made to conserve the natural environment of Antarctica and to protect historic sites and monuments.
ATS
The Antarctic Treaty system is the collective name given to the international arrangements that provide for the governance of the Antarctic region. It comprises the 1959 Antarctic Treaty, the 1991 Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (Environmental Protocol), 1980 Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, and the 1972 Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Seals.
ASPA
Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA). APSAs are defined areas protected under Annex V of the Environmental Protocol for their ‘outstanding environmental, scientific, historic, aesthetic or wilderness values, any combination of those values, or ongoing or planned scientific research’.
ATEP Act
Antarctic Treaty (Environment Protection) Act 1980. The Australian legislation that gives effect to the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty 1991 (Environmental Protocol).
BANZARE
Expeditions conducted by the Australian, British and New Zealand governments between 1929-1931 to explore Antarctica.
The Burra Charter
The Australia ICOMOS Charter for Places of Cultural Significance (The Burra Charter), 2013 sets a standard of practice for those who provide advice, make decisions about, or undertake works to places of cultural significance.
Commonwealth Heritage values
Values of a Commonwealth Heritage place that meet one or more of the criteria set out in paragraph 10.03A(2) of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Regulations 2000.
Conservation
All the processes of looking after a place so as to retain its cultural significance (The Burra Charter), and its natural significance which always includes protection, maintenance and monitoring (Australian Natural Heritage Charter).
DCCEEW
The Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water (DCCEEW) is a Commonwealth Government department which develops and implements national policy, programs and legislation to protect and conserve Australia’s natural environment and cultural heritage. The department administers environment and heritage laws, including the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999.
Environment
Defined in the EPBC Act (Section 528) to include:<br>(a) ecosystems and their constituent parts, including people and communities; and<br>(b) natural and physical resources; and<br>(c) the qualities and characteristics of locations, places and areas; and<br>(d) heritage values of places; and<br>(e) the social, economic and cultural aspects of a thing mentioned in paragraph(a), (b), (c) or(d).
Environmental Protocol
The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty 1991 (Environmental Protocol), was adopted by the Antarctic Treaty parties in 1991, and in force since 1998. Its annexes address environmental impact assessment, conservation of fauna and flora, waste, marine pollution, area protection, and management and liability arising from environmental emergencies. Provisions for the protection of sites of historical significance are in Annex V, article 8.
EPBC Act
The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) is Commonwealth legislation that protects the environment, particularly matters of National Environmental Significance.
GIS
Geographical Information System is a computer-based program that provides an efficient way to manage, analyse and display spatial data.
Glacial erratics
The process by where rock is transported by a glacier and deposited elsewhere.
Glaciation
The process of erosion or wreathing of bedrock.
Heritage Strategy
Australian Government agencies that own or control Commonwealth Heritage places must prepare a written heritage strategy. The strategy puts heritage conservation and management within an agency’s property planning and management framework.
HSM
Historic Site and Monument
HMP
Heritage Management Plan. HMPs are developed by owners/managers of a listed Commonwealth Heritage place and set out actions that will be taken to manage and protect the listed values of that place.
ICOMOS
International Council on Monuments and Sites
Katabatic wind
This type of wind forms when the air close to the icy surface cools as it radiates away its heat. This makes it heavier and forces it to flow downhill.
MHHS
Mawson’s Huts Historic Site. The site comprises not only the primary structure of Main Hut / Workshop, but also: subsidiary structures (Magnetograph House, Absolute Magnetic Hut and Transit Hut); artefacts (in various states of preservation dispersed throughout the site); features (ruined wireless masts and survey markers); and memorials (pole, cannister, copy of proclamation and replica plaque).
National Heritage values
Values of a National Heritage place that meet one or more of the criteria set out in paragraph 10.01A(2) of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Regulations 2000.
Roche moutonnées
Rocky outcrops
Significance
Cultural significance means aesthetic, historic, scientific, social or spiritual value for past, present or future generations (The Burra Charter).<br>Natural significance means the importance of ecosystems, biodiversity and geodiversity for their existence value or for present or future generations, in terms of their scientific, social, aesthetic and life-support value.
Figure 2: Adélie penguin and chicks at Mawson’s Huts Historic Site
Source: David Killick, 2022
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Context
Mawson’s Huts Historic Site is located at Cape Denison, in the eastern part of the Australian Antarctic Territory. The site was Australia’s first Antarctic base and supported our early scientific and geographical exploration of Antarctica. The site comprises buildings, structures and artefacts from the Australasian Antarctic Expedition (AAE) of 1911-1914, led by Dr (later Sir) Douglas Mawson. The AAE was the only expedition supported, organised and undertaken predominantly by Australians during the early twentieth century in what is known as the Heroic Era of Antarctic exploration.
The site’s cultural heritage significance was recognised nationally by its inclusion on the Register of the National Estate in 1980 (now a non-statutory archive), the Commonwealth Heritage List in 2004 and the National Heritage List in 2005. Its cultural heritage significance has also been recognised within the international Antarctic Treaty system. In 1972 the huts were designated as a Historic Site and Monument (HSM), and in 2004 as an Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA).
The Australian Antarctic Division (AAD) of the Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water (DCCEEW) manages Mawson’s Huts Historic Site on behalf of the Australian Government.
1.2 The need for a Heritage Management Plan
The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) requires the Australian Government to make a written plan to protect and manage the National and Commonwealth Heritage values of a place it has responsibility for. This Heritage Management Plan has been prepared in accordance with the requirements for managing National and Commonwealth Heritage places.
This plan has been structured in accordance with the recommendations provided in Working Together: Managing National Heritage Places (Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, 2008), and Working Together Managing Commonwealth Heritage Places, A guide for Commonwealth Agencies (Department of the Environment and Energy, 2019).
This plan will remain in force until such time as a new plan is adopted or it is subject to sunsetting.
1.3 Public consultation
Public consultation on a proposal to review the Mawson’s Huts Historic Site Management Plan 2013-2018 was held between 23 May – 23 June 2023. Key stakeholders and experts were then consulted during the development of the draft of this plan. A second invitation for public comment on the draft proposed replacement plan was subsequently held between 28 February – 1 April 2025. Three submissions were received during this period.
This final plan incorporates amendments made in response to public submissions, and comments from the Australian Heritage Council.
1.4 Conservation philosophy
The conservation philosophy for managing Mawson’s Huts Historic Site is to protect, conserve and transmit to future generations the heritage values for which the site was listed, while allowing the fabric of the site to represent both a moment in time and the passage of time, without sacrificing either original fabric or the structural integrity of buildings at the site. This approach is consistent with The Burra Charter which provides a standard of practice for those who provide advice, make decisions about, or undertake works to places of cultural significance.
Over time, the fabric of the buildings has been affected in differing ways dependent on manufacture and origin. As such, this Heritage Management Plan adopts differing approaches toward the conservation of intact structures as opposed to standing ruins at the site. Conservation of the buildings and artefacts should accommodate original imperfections while demonstrating the effect of decades of exposure to the Antarctic environment. Furthermore, the replacement of defective members within timber structures is an accepted and regular maintenance activity, and as such replacement materials should not necessarily be considered detracting, and in some circumstances is essential to ensure the ongoing integrity of the structure.
The design of the huts at Cape Denison is a reflection of the Australian domestic architecture of the time. As these structures were never intended to be more than a temporary shelter for a single expedition, the overall aim is to maintain them in their original and imperfect state while avoiding excessive interference. Management of the site will be dependent on what is prudent and feasible, taking into consideration the remoteness of the site, and financial and logistical restraints.
1.5 Plan objectives
The overarching objective of this plan is to identify, protect, conserve, present and transmit the National and Commonwealth Heritage values of Mawson’s Huts Historic Site.
The plan has also been prepared to meet the following legislative and policy requirements:
compliance with the relevant legislative requirements for listed National and Commonwealth Heritage places as defined under the EPBC Act (Schedule 5B, Schedule 7B, Schedule 5A and Schedule 7A of the EPBC Regulations – Appendix A identifies the relevant parts of this plan that comply with these schedules);
fulfilment of the Department’s broader commitments to heritage to ‘protect and sustainably manage Australia’s natural, historic and Indigenous heritage places for future generations’ as defined within the Corporate Plan 2024–25, Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water (DCCEEW 2023; DCCEEW 2024); and
alignment with Australia’s national interests as articulated within the Australian Antarctic Strategy and 20 Year Action Plan Update (AAD 2022) by:
promoting the rules and norms of environmental protection within the Antarctic Treaty system, under which historic values are protected (AAD 2022)
demonstrating its best practice leadership in environmental stewardship by undertaking appropriate management, visitation and conservation of its heritage sites (AAD 2022).
Mawson’s Huts Historic Site is located at Cape Denison, in the Australian Antarctic Territory, which is around 3000 km south of Hobart, Australia. Cape Denison is a 1.5 km-wide peninsula projecting into the centre of Commonwealth Bay. The Cape’s total area is approximately 130 hectares.
The historic site is set within a landscape containing unique natural features. Perhaps the most striking natural feature of Cape Denison is the towering height of the Antarctic plateau. This ice cap extends along Commonwealth Bay in the form of huge ice cliffs, which periodically calve into the sea. The huts, perched on a small rocky peninsula, are dwarfed by the vast Antarctic ice cap with its snow and ice scapes, rocks and relentless winds, convey a strong sense of time and isolation. Other natural features include the katabatic winds that descend from the plateau at speeds frequently greater than 200 kms per hour; geological features important for understanding the breakup of Gondwana over 60 million years ago; and several species of flora and fauna including lichens, seabirds and seals.
The boundaries of Mawson’s Huts Historic Site for the National Heritage listing and the Commonwealth Heritage listing are not the same. The National Heritage area is larger and covers the whole Cape Denison, while the Commonwealth Heritage area covers the only section of the Cape in which the huts are situated. This discrepancy is due to the National Heritage listing’s protection of the archaeological potential of the whole of Cape Denison, and reference to the site as a cultural landscape. As such this plan should be read as covering the larger (National Heritage) area. To this end, all boundaries referring to the site in this plan align with the boundaries described in the National Heritage List entry, namely: a line commencing at the intersection of the coastline and latitude 67°00’47”S at Land’s End (approximately 67°00’47”S, 142°39’28”E), then northerly via the low water mark (LWM) to the intersection of the coastline with latitude 67°00’21”S (approximately 67°00’21”S, 142°39’18”E), then north-easterly via a straight line to the intersection of the eastern coastline of Boat Harbour with latitude 67°00’20”S (approximately 67°00’20”S, 142°39’27”E), then northerly and south-easterly via the LWM to its intersection with latitude 67°00’47”S at John O’Groats (approximately 67°00’47”S, 142°41’27”E), then westerly via a straight line to the point of commencement.
Landscape
Cape Denison is a rugged, 1.5 km wide tongue of ice, snow, rock and moraine projecting into Commonwealth Bay from the steeply rising ice cap of continental Antarctica. The ice cliffs at either end of the Cape (Land’s End and John O’Groats), and the sea hemming the northern shore, form a natural sense of enclosure. The natural features of Cape Denison were first described and recorded by members of the AAE.
On approach across Commonwealth Bay to Cape Denison, the Antarctic ice cap dominates the skyline. The ice cap terminates in cliffs which calve into the sea, forming icebergs.
The topography of the site is defined by four rocky ridges running south-southeast to north-northwest, with three intervening valleys filled with ice, snow and glacial moraine. The largest, most westerly valley contains the four AAE huts. At the seaward end of this valley is Boat Harbour, a 400 m long indent in the coastline.
Source: Map 16396, Australian Antarctic Data Centre, June 2025
Cape Denison is renowned for being the windiest place on earth at sea level. This is due to the katabatic winds that descend from the plateau at speeds frequently greater than 200 kms per hour. This constant wind always blows from the south. It carries drift snow and ice, often creating blizzards, and whips the sea into a chop topped with fierce spume only metres from the shore. Surface temperatures generally range from -21°C and lower in winter, to -3°C in summer, with occasional days approaching zero or above. These temperatures do not account for wind chill.
The area contains many geological features that are important for understanding the breakup of Gondwana over 60 million years ago, as it was roughly opposite what is now the Gawler Craton in South Australia. Large boulder fields are coloured with lichen, the only known flora on Cape Denison. Glaciation is common and generates a roche moutonnées effect with gentler, smoother surfaces towards the ice source and a rougher, more plucked downslope area. The landscape includes an abundance of glacial erratics on a striated surface, and it is strewn with glacial deposits. There are six melt water lakes associated with glacial action.
The only flora recorded at the site are thirteen lichen species, which are found on boulders, or other moraines. Non-marine algae associated with thirteen small glacial lakes, generally parallel to the foliation of the basement rocks and melt streams which flow in summer, are numerous, however, surveys are yet to be undertaken.
From October onwards, most seabirds return to their breeding sites to commence the breeding season. Adélie penguins (Pygoscelis adeliae) are the most abundant bird species, numbering about 20,000 breeding pairs. Other seabird species sighted in the area include Cape petrels (Daption capense), Antarctic petrels (Thalassoica antarctica), southern fulmars (Fulmarus glacialoides), southern giant petrels (Macronectes giganteus), Snow petrels (Pagodroma nivea), Wilson’s storm petrels (Oceanites oceanicus), and occasionally emperor penguins (Aptenodytes forsteri).
Southern elephant seals (Mirounga leonina) moult at Cape Denison during the warmer months, and Weddell seals (Leptonychotes weddellii) and leopard seals (Hydrurga leptonyx) sometimes haul out.
2.2 Built Environment
Five phases of human occupation have occurred at Mawson’s Huts Historic Site:
- the AAE expedition from January 1912 to December 1913
- the overnight BANZARE visit in January 1931
- sporadic visits by modern scientific parties between 1950 and 1967
- conservation expeditions since 1974 and
- occasional visits by tourism operators since the 1980s.
The 1911-14 Australasian Antarctic Expedition, led by Dr Douglas Mawson, pursued primarily scientific objectives and undertook magnetic charting for navigational purposes, geological and biological studies, and the establishment of a wireless weather station. This expedition marks the foundational period of the historic site. Between 1912-1913, the majority of fabric still remaining at Cape Denison was installed. This includes the historic structures, artefacts, wireless masts, survey markers and memorials.
The 1929-1931 British Australian and New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition, also led by Mawson, defined the limits of what was to become the Australian Antarctic Territory, and added further materials to the historic site. Fabric installed at Cape Denison in 1931 included the Proclamation pole, plaque and canister atop Proclamation Hill.
Between 1950 and 1967, sporadic visits by modern scientific parties including the French, New Zealand and American parties visited the site and left various items including a logbook, ration packs, tin cans, soap powder and alcohol bottles.
Since 1974, conservation expeditions conducted by the Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions / Australian Antarctic Program, as well as the Mawson’s Huts Foundation, to the site have installed significant infrastructure including three refuges, an automatic weather station, tide gauge and time capsule and plaque.
Since the 1980s, various tourism operators have visited the site within their East Antarctic itineraries. As these visits include entry into an Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA 162), they require authorisation under a permit issued by the company’s respective National Competent Authority. On occasion, these visits have supported conservation works at the historic site.
Fabric identified at the site to date is associated with the first four phases, and is protected as detailed in the following sections.
The following map (Map 3) shows the placement of the structures that contribute to the heritage values of the site, relative to the other structures and the surrounding environment.
Fabric at the site that was deposited prior to 1950 is protected under the National and Commonwealth Heritage listings, and is associated with either the AAE or BANZARE (or both).
Fabric from the AAE (1912-1913)
Main Hut
Magnetograph House
Absolute Magnetic Hut
Transit Hut
Cultural heritage artefacts (across entire site)
Wireless mast ruins
Survey markers
Azimuth Hill site (Memorial Cross and replica plaque)
Fabric from BANZARE (1931)
Proclamation Hill site (pole, canister, copy of proclamation and replica plaque)
Main Hut, originally two separate huts, is in the centre of the most westerly valley and was erected as close as was practicable to the landing point for supplies, about 65 m southeast of Boat Harbour. Transit Hut is to the northeast and Magnetograph House and Absolute Magnetic Hut are on the northern end of the eastern ridge. There is also a memorial cross and plaque on the summit of Azimuth Hill, masts from the wireless station to the north and south of Main Hut, various survey and sighting marks within the valley and the ridges, and meteorological instruments on a rock shelf between Main Hut and Transit Hut and on the eastern ridge on a knoll known as Proclamation Hill (the site of the proclamation pole and plaque). There are also seal and penguin meat caches and significant artefact scatters within the historic site. From Main Hut, (67º00’31”S, 142º39’39”E), Transit Hut (67°00’30”S, 142°39’42”E) is 40 m northeast; Magnetograph House (67°00’21”S, 142°39’47”E) is approximately 310 m north-northeast; and Absolute Magnetic Hut (67°00’23”S, 142°39’48”E) is about 275 m northeast. On the west ridge of Main Valley is the Memorial Cross of 1913, and on a ridge to the southeast is Proclamation Hill, marking the formal possession of George V Land proclaimed in 1931.
The following describes these historic fabrics, while a summary of conservations works undertaken at the site to date can be found at Appendix F.
Figure 5: Floorplan of Main Hut – living quarters and workshop layout
Source: Alfred Hodgeman’s plans of Main Hut (as recorded in The Home of the Blizzard, Mawson, 1930)
The layout of the internal features of the living quarters and workshop are depicted in Figure 4, and further described below.
Main Hut was constructed on a level section of rocky ground located in a valley, 65 m from the edge of Boat Harbour. The structure consists of two prefabricated Oregon-framed timber huts – one housing the living quarters, and the other the workshop. The foundations are set in 50 tons of loose rocks. Structural timbers are bolted together and the building is clad, both internally and externally, in tongue-and-groove Baltic pine. A 1.5 m verandah surrounds the structure on three sides.
The living quarters, prefabricated by the company George Hudson and Son (Sydney), is 7.3 x 7.3 m with a pyramid shaped roof supported in the centre by four posts (0.1 x 0.1 m). There are four skylights, all with glass and timber covers, that can be opened. The seventeen bunk beds are arranged in two tiers around the walls, leaving a central living space for the stove and dining table. There are two separate rooms: Mawson’s Cubicle and Hurley’s Darkroom.
Bunks were erected for expedition members along the east, south and west walls. Most bunks are framed up using posts at each end, plates fixed to the wall, and an outer facing board with an inner plate. Each bunk has a lower and upper berth. Dividing partitions of boarding fixed to the posts and battens on the wall separate the bunks. The bunks are inscribed with the initials of the expeditioners that occupied them. Herbert Murphy’s bunk was removed in 1913 on the northern wall of the living quarters when the radio was moved from the workshop. Several bunks were modified in the second year to create storage areas.
An acetylene plant system provided lighting. It consists of an acetylene carbide plant mounted above a small platform fixed to the northeast ‘queen’ post above head height.
Numerous shelves were erected throughout the hut. Most shelves appear to consist of tongue-and-grooved boards and off cuts of timber supported on metal brackets of various sizes and design. Three shelves on the north wall provide for storage of cooking and eating utensils, and food. Three shelves erected on the outside of the north wall of Mawson’s cubicle make the library. A bench constructed from tongue-and-grooved boarding and framing timber provides storage for cooking items adjacent to the stove. All shelves still have a wide variety of artefacts on them. Some shelving has collapsed under the weight of snow and ice.
A large stove, described by Mawson as an anthracite coal cooking range, is positioned in the northwest corner. The stove was used for cooking and provided warmth for the hut. A chimney of approximately 0.15 m diameter penetrated the roof above. The chimney was fitted with a cowl and was supported by three wire stays fixed to the roof. The penetration was over flashed. Asbestos cement sheeting backs the stove along the external wall of the darkroom. The chimney collapsed between 1977 and 1978. External evidence of the chimney was obscured with the over-cladding of the roof in 2006/07, which obscures the weathered original boards, but was determined as necessary to prevent the ingress of snow and ice with little affect to the structure’s internal environment. Further over-cladding of the southwest corner of Main Hut was undertaken in 2009/10.
Skylights were provided in each section of the roof to provide light to the interior of the hut. Each skylight varied in dimension, but was constructed with three panels of 2.9 mm glass set into a timber frame using putty and glazing pins, and fitted with a hinged cover. All of the original skylights and covers have been repaired with a mixture of original and replica parts to prevent snow and ice ingress.
The only reference to insulation is that recorded by Mawson as ‘two courses of tarred paper’ in the roof and walls to provide protection from the wind. Little tar paper remains inside Main Hut, as it is fragile, loosely secured, not always visible and at risk of loss or damage during ongoing ice removal. Straw-type insulation (originally used as packing material) has been found adjacent to the door to the living quarters and in gaps in the boards in combination with strips of tar paper.
Mawson’s Cubicle is approximately 2.1 x 2.4 m and positioned centrally on the south side of the hut. The walls are a single lining on a stud frame, with the studs exposed inside the room. Fittings inside the cubicle include a bunk along the south wall, a series of shelves on the west wall adjacent to the doors, shelves to the north and south walls, and a table and chair. There are also decorative prints left behind by Mawson.
Hurley’s Darkroom is approximately 1.2 x 1.2 m and positioned in the northwest corner of the hut. The walls are double lined on a stud frame fitted with a door, 610 mm wide. The room is fitted with a waste disposal chute through the northern wall, a bench along the west wall and numerous shelves. Detritus has been worn away near the door entrance and the floor is littered with artefacts. There is an inscription inside the darkroom on the southern wall immediately adjacent to the door by Frank Hurley that reads ‘near enough is not good enough’.
Figure 7: Workshop containing original fabrics and conservation equipment (Main Hut)
Source: David Killick, 2022
The workshop, prefabricated by Messrs Anthony (Melbourne), is 5.5 x 4.9 m with a hipped roof and two skylights. The only access to the living quarters is through the workshop attached at the northern side (there is no direct external access to the living quarters). The western verandah contains access to the cellar and roof as well as a latrine.
Magnetograph House, prefabricated by Risby Brothers (Hobart), is a 5.5 x 2 m Oregon frame timber hut with a shallow-pitched skillion roof and copper ventilator was erected in March 1912 on a cleared site approximately 400 m northeast of Main Hut, where the party had to use explosives to clear and flatten the site. Tongue-and-groove Baltic pine boards are used for internal and external cladding, and the walls are reinforced by approximately 30 tonne of rock. The first attempt at erection was undermined by strong winds, so the building was made impervious to wind through installation of sheets of tarred builder’s paper under the timber lining and a final continuous layer of tarred paper placed over the inside wall. The whole of the framework is secured by copper spikes and bolts. A shortage of small copper nails necessitated the use of some iron nails to fasten the lining, but not within 6 feet of the instruments. The building was insulated with hessian and sheep skins attached to the roof (re-clad in 1998), and sheep skins and rocks lining the walls, including the windward side. There is an inner and outer porch with three door sets. The external door is a double ‘stable’ ship’s door taken from the Clyde which was shipwrecked at Macquarie Island. Macquarie Island was the first stop of the AAE on 11 December 1911, and where the first scientific base was erected. A five-man party was left behind to establish a wireless relay station, but radio contact between Macquarie Island and Cape Denison was not fully operational until 1913, when the party remained on the island for an unscheduled second year. The internal door is inscribed with a description on how to enter and exit the building. The structure was used by the expedition to house the magnetograph equipment, which were used to measure variations in the South Magnetic Pole.
The Absolute Magnetic Hut, erected in February 1912, is a standing ruin consisting of a complete south wall, portions of the east wall, and the framing of the north and west walls. The frame is constructed of leftover Oregon timber with timber boarding and tarred builders’ paper lining and is fastened entirely with copper spikes and bolts. The plan is 1.8 m square, situated on a rock shelf and originally anchored to the ground to prevent it from being blown away. The skillion roof was removed by BANZARE expeditioners in January 1931. The hut is erected 52 m south of Magnetograph House, and was used to in association with, and as a reference point for, observations made in Magnetograph House.
Figure 10: Transit Hut with over-clad southern face
Source: David Killick, 2022
The Transit Hut is the roofless stabilised ruin of what was originally known as the Astronomical Observatory. The hut was built on a 900 mm high rock ledge and constructed stone platform approximately 30 m northeast of Main Hut in May 1913 to house a theodolite used for astronomical observations to determine the latitude and longitude of Cape Denison. These coordinates were painted on the plinth in the centre of the hut.
The Oregon timber frame is braced by metal shelf brackets and was lined with packing case timber and clad in sheepskin and canvas. There is a partial lining of asbestos cement sheeting. The structure had one door in the northeast corner. A 20 inch transit telescope loaned to the expedition by the Melbourne Observatory was housed on a 25.5 cm square wood pillar set into the rocks. An inscription on the pillar described detail of the longitude of the location. The hut incorporates meridional slots in the roof and tops of the north and south walls. In 2010/11, a timber portal frame was installed to stabilise the structure, and during the 2021/22 conservation expedition, further stabilisation works were undertaken including over-cladding of the southern wall. The materials used were consistent with the original fabric of the hut.
Over thirty years of archaeological investigations in Main Hut have recorded more than 1700 items including food tins and foodstuffs, bottles, photographic plates, reference books, newspapers, novels, notices, pictures, chemicals and developing paper. Due to the proximity of the artefact scatter to Main Hut, a new access walkway across the scatter to the front door of Main Hut was fabricated in 2021/22.
Artefacts and artefact scatters relating to the AAE have also been observed across Cape Denison and on the plateau. Major concentrations of artefacts occur around the huts, especially Main Hut, with the main concentration of external artefacts at Cape Denison located to the north of Main Hut. Homogeneous collections of material, such as wood, suggest that the area was used as a source of material for recycling. Other artefacts are present, such as the remains of clothing, food, refuse and seal remains. There are other artefact scatters recorded in the Hut Valley area extending as far as John O’Groats to the east. They include seal and penguin meat caches, bamboo poles, pieces of copper wire, survey markers and pieces of wood. Remnants of the air tractor and geological sampling sites have also been found in the Cape Denison area.
Two wireless masts were erected by late August 1912, and a temporary aerial enabled messages to be sent to Macquarie Island by 25 September, until one of the masts was broken by wind in October. The wireless operator was based in the workshop, and later in the living section of Main Hut, where warmer and drier conditions improved the operations of the equipment. The reconstructed apparatus successfully sent messages, but was not able to receive them. Two-way communication resumed in February 1913. Large fragments of the two broken wireless masts to the north and south of Main Hut and their associated chains, aerial wire and insulators remain but are mostly obscured by snow and ice. They are now fallen ruins that are exposed to varying degree in any given season depending on environmental factors such as snow cover.
Survey markers
The terrestrial magnetism program, commenced by Mawson during the AAE, used survey markers during 1912/13 around the extended site to observe of the earth’s magnetic field. These markers were erected across the site and included timber alignment posts for magnetic observations both east and west; a bench mark to the east of Main Hut; eleven survey marks east of Main Valley; transit survey posts, including a timber pillar in Transit Hut and north mark north of Transit Hut; and an eastern mark 30 m east of Magnetograph Hut marking the eastern boundary of the base survey area.
The main azimuth mark (west mark) is located on top of what is now known as Azimuth Ridge, approximately 386 m west of Absolute Magnetic Hut. It consists of a length of timber (0.076 x 0.051 x 1.22 m) around which a cairn of stones has been constructed.
The dip-circle station is located approximately 44 m to the east of Absolute Magnetic Hut. This mark consists of a pointed piece of timber with a hole bored through it and supported with a stone cairn.
A third station mark no longer exists, but was located in an ice cave approximately 1173 m and a few degrees east of south of Absolute Magnetic Hut.
Like the wireless masts, the survey markers are exposed to varying degree in any given season depending on environmental factors such as snow cover.
In November 1913, Francis Bickerton erected the Memorial Cross on Azimuth Hill to remember Lieutenant Belgrave Ninnis and Dr Xavier Mertz who lost their lives during an ill-fated sledge journey with Mawson in 1912/13 to retrieve valuable equipment from field depots. The Cross is situated to the northwest of Main Hut. The upright and cross bar are fabricated from timber (0.17 x 0.17 m) apparently salvaged from the radio masts. The upright projects 3.4 m above the surrounding rocks and is capped by a 0.065 m metal collar. The crossbar is 2.2 m long with a 0.065 m collar at each end. The crossbar is fixed to the upright 2.2 m above the rocks.
The crossbar has blown off four times. It was re-attached in 1931 by BANZARE, in 1951 by a French overland expedition from Dumont d’Urville, in 1978 by ANARE and a fourth time by the AAP Mawson’s Huts Foundation expedition in 1997/98.
A plaque attached to the cross was inscribed by Alfred Hodgeman: ‘Erected to commemorate the supreme sacrifice made by Lieut. B.E.S. Ninnis, R.F. and Dr. X. Mertz in the cause of science A.A.E. 1913 A.J. Hodgeman’. The plaque was constructed from two pieces of scrap timber, which was screwed onto the face of the cross. The plaque currently in place is a replica. The original was removed to Australia in 1977, returned to the site in 1978, removed again in 1985, and replaced by a reconstruction in 1986.
Figure 14: Proclamation pole, plaque and canister atop Proclamation Hill
Source: Eoin O Suilleabhain, 2022
A small plaque and proclamation were affixed to the mast of the AAE puff anemometer mast during the BANZARE territorial claim ceremony in 1931, on what was thereafter known as Proclamation Hill and Proclamation Pole. During this ceremony, the party hoisted a flag on the old mast on Anemometer Hill, which became Proclamation Hill. After the requisite ceremonial declaration and singing of the national anthem, a proclamation in a casket was deposited at the foot of the pole, claiming formal possession in the name of His Majesty King George the Fifth, His Heirs and Successors. This landing was the first at Cape Denison since Mawson and his remaining AAE members had left. The original proclamation was removed to Australia in 1977 and replaced with a replica proclamation and replica bronze canister in 1978. The original plaque was removed in 1977, returned inside a transparent plastic and metal frame in 1978, removed in 1985 and replaced with a replica in 1986.
Post-1950 fabric
Some fabric at the site that was deposited after 1950 is also considered historically significant. There are material traces of visits from modern scientific parties to the site between 1950 and 1967, while conservation expeditions since 1974 have left significant infrastructure. This list does not include the fabric that has been added for conservation purposes, such as the timbers used for over-cladding or supporting the huts.
Fabric from modern scientific parties (1950-1967):
Miscellaneous items
Conservation expeditions (1974 to present):
Granholm Hut
Sørensen Hut
Apple Hut
Automatic Weather Station
Tide gauge
Centenary Time Capsule and Plaque
Descriptions of these items and structures are in Appendix H.
The 1911-14 Australasian Antarctic Expedition, led by 29-year-old Dr Douglas Mawson, took place during the Heroic Era – an era typically defined as the period between 1895 and 1922 when explorers were exploring, mapping, and researching the region for their respective nation-states. This era came to represent the heroic conquests of these explorers from several nations, including: Britain, Norway, Germany, France, Belgium, Australia, New Zealand, Scotland and Japan.
The objectives of Mawson’s expedition were primarily scientific, with planned activities including: magnetic charting for navigational purposes, geological and biological studies, and the establishment of a wireless weather station. These activities also served the national interest as they were occurring in the area directly south of Australia—Commonwealth Bay in East Antarctica.
Main Hut at Cape Denison represents one of six remaining Heroic Era prefabricated huts. The others are: Carsten Borchgrevink’s Southern Cross hut at Cape Adare (Norway/UK, 1899); Robert Scott’s Discovery hut at Hut Point (UK, 1901); Otto Nordenskjöld’s Antarctic hut at Snow Hill (Sweden, 1901); Ernest Shackleton’s Nimrod hut at Cape Royds (UK, 1908); and Robert Scott’s Terra Nova hut at Cape Evans hut (UK, 1911).
Heroic Era huts were purpose-built for polar winter accommodation, to support specific scientific expeditions. At a time when ship accommodation was the norm for expeditions, these huts represent a rare snapshot of early polar expedition huts. The design form, construction materials, structure, functional planning and services of these huts reflect the function of the expeditions and their polar location.
As a group, Mawson’s Huts retain the most intact and diverse range of accommodation and scientific facilities of the Heroic Era complexes. The design of Main Hut demonstrates a clarity of purpose for the space and functional arrangements of the living area. The central communal area was a focal point for the living space. The use of a raked pyramid ceiling created spatial volume. Mawson applied lessons learnt from his previous Antarctic experience, and achieved a reasonable balance between insulation, heating and ventilation.
3.2 Current use
The current uses of Mawson’s Huts Historic Site are limited to heritage conservation and archaeology, scientific observations and tourism.
Figure 16: Expeditioner tents on a platform during the 2021/22 conservation expedition
Source: David Killick, 2022
Heritage conservation
Since the 1970s, site visits have been undertaken specifically for heritage conservation, managed through a combination of private and AAD efforts, including Project Blizzard that took place between 1984-1986 and during which the first major conservation works were undertaken, and the first condition assessment for the site was produced. ANARE visits took place in 1974, 1975, 1977, 1978 and 1981, amidst growing awareness of the national significance of the site, and deliberation over how best to preserve the site.
In 1967, the ANARE Club established a ‘Mawson’s Hut Restoration Committee’. Returned Australian expeditioners and others campaigned for recognition and preservation of the significance of the site Suggested approaches differed on whether to intervene at all, undertake minimal intervention and use new timber to stabilise the structures, or undertake major intervention such as enclosing the historic huts in a dome, or by removing the huts from the site and re-erecting them in Australia.
While most of the early visits did not set out to conserve the site, they documented observations on the condition of its features, and raised awareness of the challenges. All reports registered concerns about the future of the huts, which in turn generated debate. A key question was whether Main Huts could be preserved in situ, or whether the costs of maintenance expeditions to a place that was at that stage rarely visited, would be prohibitive. One proposal was to dismantle and repatriate to Australia the key fabric, to be reconstructed for a museum display.
On-site recording and conservation work began in the 1970s. These efforts coincided with the growth of the heritage conservation movement and related professions, and reflected changes in the prevailing philosophy of heritage management. The huts were registered on the Register of the National Estate (now a non-statutory archive) in 1980, and has been conserved in accordance with the ‘values-based’ approach of The Burra Charter (first adopted in 1979) since this time. While each step in the site’s conservation has achieved tangible results, each expedition has also kept a public focus on the place, demonstrating successful cooperation between the public and private sectors.
Since 1978, successive Australian governments have endorsed a policy of preserving the huts in situ. This policy is consistent with national best practice: Article 9 of The Burra Charter states that a ‘building, work or other component of a place should remain in its historical location’, and that relocation is ‘generally unacceptable unless this is the sole practical means of ensuring its survival’. It is also consistent with Australia’s international obligations, as expressed within Article 8 of Annex V of the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty which stipulates that listed Historic Sites and Monuments ‘shall not be damaged, removed or destroyed’. The philosophy of preserving the huts in their original context rather than removing them, in light of how important the context is to the significance of the huts, has continued to guide the management of the site, and has received widespread support from heritage professionals and historians.
The protection of the Antarctic environment, including its heritage value, is a core function of the AAD. As the site is not in the vicinity of an operational Australian research station, conservation work has historically been achieved through special expeditions. Since 1996, the Mawson’s Huts Foundation, a private non-for-profit charity, has mounted expeditions to undertake conservation works programs under the guidance of, and as approved by, the AAD as place manager of the site. A summary of key works undertaken at the site to date can be found at Appendix F.
Scientific observation
The site is also accessed for scientific research. The paucity of relatively ice-free areas in the immediate region means that Cape Denison is used as a haul-out site for Weddell, leopard and elephant seals, and is an important breeding area for Adélie penguins, Wilson’s storm-petrels, snow petrels and south polar skuas. Thirteen lichen species have also been recorded in the area.
Cape Denison provides opportunities to repeat Mawson’s experiments and conduct further research in the fields of magnetism, meteorology, biology and other sciences. The records from Mawson’s expedition provide a dataset against which the results of modern research may be compared, and the site’s isolation gives it value for future use as a reference site for other areas with more human activities.
Scientists studying the fauna and flora access the site on an ad hoc basis, and usually with the logistical assistance of conservation expeditions or tourism vessels visiting the site.
Tourism
During the twentieth century, two-thirds of the 650 people estimated to have visited the site were tourists. Since 2000 organised tours have been offered as part of voyages to East Antarctica and the Ross Sea region, and more than 2500 tourists have visited the site.
Between 2012 and 2017, the iceberg ‘B09B’—and its associated sea ice which extended up to 60 kilometres—blocked the entrance to Commonwealth Bay. This prevented all access to Mawson’s Huts Historic Site. According to the International Association of Antarctica Tourism Operators (IAATO), in 2023/24 a total of 78,848 tourists landed in Antarctica. There were no reported visits to Commonwealth Bay.
A typical tourist visit to Cape Denison involves 30 to 100 people visiting for several hours, under the supervision of the ship’s guides who brief their passengers on appropriate protocol. As the site is recognised as an ASPA under the ATS, entry to the site, including Main Hut, requires a permit. Entry for tourists is subject to the condition that they are accompanied by a suitably qualified guide, and only in accordance with other requirements specified in the ASPA Management Plan. The only interpretive material on-site is a small plaque near Main Hut which explains in four languages that Mawson’s Hut is on the list of Historic Sites and Monuments adopted by the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting.
Isolation and unreliable access to the site has kept tourist visits to a relatively low level compared with other parts of the Antarctic such as the Antarctic Peninsula. While there is no pattern of growth in visits to the site to date, it is anticipated that with an overall growth in Antarctic tourism, more operators may be accessing East Antarctica and its historic sites in coming seasons.
Chapter 4: Management Frameworks
Three key pieces of Australian legislation apply to the management of Mawson’s Huts Historic Site’s heritage values – the EPBC Act and EPBC Regulations, the Antarctic Treaty (Environment Protection) Act 1980 (ATEP Act), the Protection of Movable Cultural Heritage Act 1986, and the Underwater Cultural Heritage Act 2018. As an ASPA and HSM, the site is also managed according to several international commitments. These are set out below.
4.1 Site governance
The AAD manages Mawson’s Huts Historic Site on behalf of the Australian Government, as part of its administration of the Australian Antarctic Territory. This responsibility includes ensuring that the heritage values of the site are preserved, and that these values are interpreted and presented to the Australian community. In practice, the AAD develops the priorities, policies and procedures associated with managing Australia’s Antarctic heritage. This includes developing management plans which are approved by the Australian Government Minister for the Environment (EPBC Act Heritage Management Plans). Internationally, the site is designated as a Historic Site and Monument (HSM) and an Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA) by the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, with an ASPA Management Plan in place (see additional information on the Antarctic Treaty in 4.3). These plans are implemented by the AAD, in cooperation with appropriate expert personnel as required. For example, the AAD has worked closely with the Mawson’s Huts Foundation to conduct conservation actions at the site for the past few decades.
The Australian Heritage Council advises the Minister responsible for heritage matters on identification, assessment, conservation and monitoring of heritage. This includes the provision of advice to the Minister on plans of management for listed places such as this plan for Mawson’s Huts Historic Site.
4.2 National legislation
Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 and Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Regulations 2000
The EPBC Act and Regulations set out requirements for there to be a management plan for the site. They also describe processes for assessing and approving actions at the site, both as a heritage listed site and as Commonwealth land. These are in place to ensure the site is managed appropriately.
Mawson’s Huts Historic Site is listed on Australia’s National and Commonwealth Heritage Lists under Part 15 Divisions 1A and 3A of the EPBC Act. This plan is prepared under Sections 324S and 341S of the EPBC Act. Such plans are binding on the Commonwealth and Commonwealth agencies as per Sections 324U and 341V of the EPBC Act.
The EPBC Regulations specify the National and Commonwealth Heritage criteria (10.01A and 10.03A); instructions for preparing Management plans for National and Commonwealth Heritage places (Schedules 5A and 7A); and the National and Commonwealth Heritage management principles (Schedules 5B and 7B). Appendix A identifies the parts of this plan that comply with Schedules 5A and 7A.
The first management plan for the site was made in 2007. The second plan, Mawson's Huts Historic Site Management Plan 2013-2018, expired in October 2025. Sections 324W and 341X require that plans be reviewed at least once every five years. This plan incorporates the recommendations resulting from the five-yearly review of the management plan conducted in 2024.
The EPBC Act stipulates controls over the AAD, as a Commonwealth agency, with respect to actions at the site. An action by a Commonwealth agency that is likely to have a significant impact on the environment, must be referred to DCCEEW for consideration under the EPBC Act. Such actions may also require an environmental impact assessment and approval. The Minister for the Environment decides whether to approve the action, and what conditions to impose, after considering the assessment.
Furthermore, the EPBC Act prohibits any action that has, will have or is likely to have a significant impact on a ‘matter of national environmental significance’, of which a National Heritage place is one (Chapter 2, Part 3, Division 1). Accordingly, any actions that are likely to cause a significant impact on the heritage values at Mawson’s Huts Historic Site will need to be referred to the Minister for the Environment for approval of on-site activities. In addition, if any action on Commonwealth land is likely to have a significant impact on the environment (including heritage), it must also be referred for the Minister’s approval (Chapter 2, Part 3, Division 2).
Section 341ZC of the EPBC Act requires adverse impacts on heritage values to be minimised. It prescribes that a Commonwealth Agency ‘must not take an action that has, will have or is likely to have an adverse impact on the National Heritage values of a National Heritage place or the Commonwealth Heritage values of a Commonwealth Heritage place, unless:
a) there is no feasible and prudent alternative to taking the action; and
b) all measures that can reasonably be taken to mitigate the impact of the action on those values are taken.’
As a signatory to the Antarctic Treaty 1959 and the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty 1991 (Environmental Protocol), Australia is bound by provisions on cultural and natural heritage under these instruments. These are given effect through the ATEP Act. Other Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties are responsible for assessing and authorising activities by their own citizens, organisations and tourism operators; and Australia provides advice on site management and guidance to international operators who are planning to visit the site.
The ATEP Act requires that all Australian activities in the Antarctic undergo prior environmental impact assessment. This includes conservation expeditions to the site. If the Minister for the Environment considers that the environmental impact is likely to be no more than minor or transitory, the Minister may grant the necessary written authorisation for the activity to be carried out. More detailed assessments – Initial Environmental Evaluation (IEE) or Comprehensive Environmental Evaluation (CEE) – are required for activities likely to involve higher levels of impact. The Minister may choose to impose conditions to protect the environment and take into account other relevant considerations.
In addition, the ATEP Act also prohibits the entering, or carrying out of any activity, in an Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA) – of which Mawson’s Huts Historic Site is one, ASPA 162 – without a permit (Section 19(1) (d)). An environmental impact assessment of such an activity is a prerequisite for a permit authorising access to the ASPA. In issuing a permit, the Minister may impose conditions. As with most other ATEP Act decisions, the AAD administers ASPA entry permits in accordance with their respective ASPA Management Plans by delegation from the Minister. As part of its regulatory function, the AAD also monitors the compliance of each Australian activity (including through mandatory post-trip reporting), to ensure that they meet strong standards of environmental and heritage protection as required by the Antarctic Treaty system and by Australia’s domestic laws.
Protection of Movable Cultural Heritage Act 1986
The Protection of Movable Cultural Heritage Act 1986 regulates the export of Australia's significant cultural heritage objects. This Act may cover artefacts that are at, or are associated with, Mawson’s Huts Historic Site.
Underwater Cultural Heritage Act 2018
The Underwater Cultural Heritage Act 2018 protects Australia’s underwater cultural heritage, including historic shipwrecks, sunken aircraft and other underwater cultural heritage sites in Commonwealth waters. This Act may cover artefacts that are at, or are associated with, Mawson’s Huts Historic Site.
4.3 International commitments
The Antarctic Treaty
Australia was an original signatory to the Antarctic Treaty, and to its subsequent Environmental Protocol which designates Antarctica as a natural reserve devoted to peace and science and provides for the comprehensive protection and management of the Antarctic environment. The Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting may designate Antarctic Specially Protected Areas, in accordance with Annex V of the Environmental Protocol, to protect outstanding environmental, scientific, historic, aesthetic or wilderness values, any combination of those values, or ongoing or planned scientific research. Management plans apply to ASPAs, with specific provisions for the protection of the ASPA’s values. All entries to and activities within an ASPA require a permit. Annex V also provides for the designation of Antarctic Specially Managed Areas (ASMAs) to assist in the planning and coordination of activities, avoid possible conflicts, improve cooperation between Parties or minimise environmental impacts.
Mawson’s Huts were designated by the ATCM as Antarctic Specially Protected Area No. 162: Mawson’s Huts, Cape Denison, Commonwealth Bay, George V Land, East Antarctica in 2004. The Area is primarily designated to protect Mawson’s Huts, remaining artefacts and the associated landscape which hold considerable historic and scientific, as well as environmental and aesthetic, value. At the same time the wider Cape Denison area, including the ASPA, was designated as Antarctic Specially Managed Area No. 3: Cape Denison, Commonwealth Bay, George V Land. In 2014, the ASMA was de-designated, and the boundaries of ASPA 162 were expanded to coincide with the previous ASMA boundary, to afford additional protection for the historic landscape and artefact scatters at Cape Denison, and simplify the management arrangements for the site.
A Management Plan for ASPA 162 was adopted by the ATCM at the time of designation in 2004, revised in 2009 and 2014, reviewed without change in 2019, and revised in 2025. The ASPA management plan provides for the protection and management of the site, including arrangements for visits and other activities, and is complementary to this Heritage Management Plan.
Mawson’s Huts Historic Site is visited by citizens of countries other than Australia that have acceded to the Antarctic Treaty and its Environmental Protocol. The provisions of the ASPA Management Plan, including restrictions and arrangements for visits to the ASPA and Huts, are legally binding on the citizens of Parties to the Environmental Protocol, through the domestic law of each Party. A permit is required for entry to the ASPA, and the activities of all tour operators and visitors must be consistent with the ASPA management plan. In addition, to assist with site conservation and protection and management of visitor access, Australia has developed visitor guidelines that have been adopted by the ATCM. The visitor guidelines provide a brief description of the site, maps, landing restrictions and visitor code of conduct, with a focus on effectively communicating visit requirements to visitors and tour operators. The guidelines supplement the formal arrangements and detailed requirements in the ASPA Management Plan.
Conservation Charters
Protection and conservation of Mawson’s Huts Historic Site is guided by the principles embodied in the following:
The Australia ICOMOS Charter for Places of Cultural Significance (The Burra Charter), 2013
Figure 17: Reading materials of the AAE within living quarters of Main Hut
Source: Tony Fleming, 2012
5.1 Assessment of the Heritage values
Prior to its inclusion on the National and Commonwealth Heritage Lists, Mawson Hut’s Historic Site was assessed on several occasions for its heritage value.
Previous assessments
In 1980, Main Hut, Transit Hut, Magnetograph House, Absolute Magnetic Hut and Memorial Cross were assessed by the Australian Heritage Commission as meeting the threshold for inclusion on the Register of the National Estate (now a non-statutory archive). This was based on the conclusion that the site was ‘significant as the site of Australia’s first scientific work in Antarctica, as a tangible link with the explorations of Sir Douglas Mawson, as the least disturbed of the nine sites of the heroic period of Antarctic exploration, as the location of Australia’s first claim to Antarctic territory and is a most powerful symbol of the nature of Australia’s research early this century.’
In 1988, a Statement of Significance was prepared by Allom Lovell Marquis-Kyle Architects. This document summarised the significance of the site as follows: ‘Mawson's Huts at Cape Denison, Commonwealth Bay, remain as the only vestige on the Antarctic continent of what is widely accepted as one of the greatest polar scientific expeditions to have occurred during the Heroic Age of Antarctic exploration. This is of particular significance to Australia on both national and international levels as the expedition was the only one during this period that was organised, funded and largely manned by Australians. The site and structures are the basis and the physical representation of Australia's claim to 42% of the Antarctic territory, dating back to this most significant period of Antarctic exploration.’
In 1993, Michael Pearson, Deputy Executive Director of the Australian Heritage Commission at the time, prepared a Conservation Plan for the site which also included a Significance Assessment. This assessment states that it draws largely on the 1988 Statement of Significance above.
In 2001, Godden Mackay Logan Heritage Consultants prepared a Conservation Management Plan for the site. The summary Statement of Significance provided within reflects the availability of new information but largely adopts the prior assessments.
These progressive assessments formed the basis of the Mawson’s Huts listings on the Commonwealth Heritage List in 2004, and the National Heritage List in 2005, which demonstrated that the site was a place with significant heritage values and outstanding value to the nation respectively. A place’s heritage value is defined in relevant legislation to include ‘aesthetic, historic, scientific, or social significance or other significance, for current and future generations of Australians’ (s 528, EPBC Act). In practice, for a site to qualify for listing, it must meet one or more of the National and/or Commonwealth Heritage criteria (Divisions 10.2 and 10.5, EPBC Regulations). Overall, these listings provide the foundation for conservation policies to be developed (according to The Burra Charter) and for heritage management to be undertaken at Mawson’s Huts Historic Site.
Current assessment
A desktop review of the heritage values associated with Mawson’s Huts Historic Site confirmed that the values, as described in the National and Commonwealth Heritage Lists, are still represented at the site. However, given that the original assessment was undertaken in 2001, a comprehensive Heritage Assessment will be undertaken within the first two years of this plan coming into effect to review the Heritage values as described in the 2001 Significance Assessment and update the National and Commonwealth Heritage listings as required.
5.2 Description of the Heritage values
In the early 2000s, the Australian Heritage Council found that Mawson’s Huts Historic Site met seven of the nine Commonwealth Heritage criteria, and eight of the nine National Heritage criteria. Based on this advice, a decision was made to include the site on the Commonwealth Heritage List in 2004, and on the National Heritage List in 2005. The full listings, including Official Values statements, are at Appendix B.
National and Commonwealth Heritage values
The National and Commonwealth Heritage values of Mawson’s Huts Historic Site are qualified by the site’s meeting of one or more of the National and Commonwealth Heritage criteria, and are realised in the attributes of the site. The tables below outline these three elements for each of the listings:
Table 1: Official Values as identified within the National Heritage listing
National Heritage criteria (Division 10.2 of the EPBC Regulations)
Official Values
Attributes
A – Processes: the place has outstanding heritage value because of the place’s importance in the course, or pattern, of Australia’s natural or cultural history
Mawson’s Huts Historic Site was the first base for scientific and geographical discovery in Antarctica by Australians. The site of Mawson’s Huts marks the location of the earliest large-scale scientific inquiry by Australians outside Australia following Federation. The Australasian Antarctic Expedition (AAE) 1911–1914, carried out major scientific experiments and laid the foundation for the eventual claim to a large portion of the Antarctic continent by Australia. The expedition was also the first to pioneer the use of wireless communication and the first to attempt to obtain an aeroplane for use in Antarctica.<br>The place is one of six surviving Heroic Era (1897 to 1917) expedition bases which symbolise the first period of land-based scientific research and geographic discovery in Antarctica.
The attributes are embedded in the AAE fabric including four timber buildings, two intact and two as standing ruins. These include the Main Hut with living section, workshop and verandahs (intact), the Magnetograph House (intact), Absolute Magnetic Hut (standing ruin with no roof), and Transit Hut (standing ruin with no roof).<br>Mawson’s Huts Historic Site also includes wireless masts (ruins), survey markers and memorials, and a large amount of stores, equipment, animal food caches and AAE artefacts remain in concentration around the Main Hut and across the whole of Cape Denison.
B – Rarity: the place has outstanding heritage value because of the place’s possession of uncommon, rare or endangered aspects of Australia’s natural or cultural history
The AAE was the first and the only expedition organised, manned and supported by Australians during the Heroic Era. It is, therefore, unique in Australian history. The Mawson’s Huts Historic Site is the only surviving site representing the work of an Australian expedition of the Heroic Age. It is one of only six sites remaining from the international contribution to the Heroic Age exploration of Antarctica.<br>The site has a high level of integrity, retaining the Main Hut, plus the three scientific huts and a large number of artefacts.
The attributes are the same as criterion (a).
C – Research: the place has outstanding heritage value because of the place’s potential to yield information that will contribute to an understanding of Australia’s natural or cultural history
The whole of Cape Denison contains evidence of the AAE, with the largest concentration in the Main Valley. This is an area of substantial archaeological deposit and archaeological potential. The interiors of the huts contain evidence of the domestic and work life of the AAE during the period of occupation (1912-1913). The site retains a great deal of physical evidence which can be interpreted by archaeological study.<br>As an archaeological resource, the significance of Mawson’s Huts Historic Site lies not only in the provisions and equipment available to expeditions during the early twentieth century, but also in the insights they provide into human responses to isolation and confinement and extreme climactic conditions. Of all the remaining historical hut sites in the Antarctic region, it appears to have been subject to the least intervention. The scientific huts still allow for research to be undertaken, with potential to yield information on climatic impact and environmental change as well and material deterioration and conservation in arctic environments.<br>The significance of the site comes from the powerful interplay of documentary and physical evidence in Australia and physical evidence on-site. Unlike sites where only physical evidence or only documentary evidence is available, the significance of the site has the potential to be accessed and understood both on-site and elsewhere.
The attributes are the AAE fabric including the four timber buildings, and the original points from which surveying, cartographic, meteorological, and magnetic observations were made. The interiors of the Main Hut and the Magnetograph House include foodstuffs, personal memorabilia and clothing. A large amount of stores, equipment, animal food, caches and AAE artefacts remain in concentration around the Main Hut and the whole of Cape Denison.
D – Characteristic values: the place has outstanding heritage value because of the place’s importance in demonstrating the principal characteristics of: a class of Australia’s natural or cultural places; or a class of Australia’s natural or cultural environments
Mawson’s Huts Historic site is one of six surviving Heroic Era wintering bases. It demonstrates the range of building uses, scientific equipment and artefact types typical of its class and period. All elements of the site contribute to the demonstration of what a Heroic Era base was like.<br>The buildings were purpose built for polar winter accommodation and were associated with specific scientific and exploration expeditions. The design form, construction materials, structure, functional planning and services of these huts all reflect the function of the expedition and their polar location. As a group, Mawson’s Huts retain the most intact and diverse range of accommodation and scientific huts of all the Heroic Era complexes.<br>The site of the extant AAE Main Base demonstrates, in its surviving form and setting, the isolation and harsh conditions encountered by members of the expedition in their important work. It shares the typical characteristics of Heroic Era huts, it is located in a remote area for temporary occupation associated with scientific and geographic discovery, the design and placement of the buildings, the artefacts, materials used, the type of scientific equipment and the scientific data and samples collected.<br>The intactness of the buildings as a group demonstrates their function during a particular and intense period of time. The weathering of the huts and the patination of the building fabric and of other artefacts serves as a gauge of time elapsed since the AAE. The Main Hut contains a clear and strong internal structure and an efficiently planned use of space which provided both the functional requirements of accommodating eighteen men and a strong sense of communal focus and camaraderie around the central table, so well documented in Hurley’s photographs.<br>Mawson’s Huts Historic Site demonstrates the types of building uses, scientific equipment and artefacts typical of Heroic Era scientific and discovery expeditions. The use of verandahs and hipped roof form provides Mawson’s Main Hut with distinct Australian design characteristics.<br>The strength and clarity of the spaces and functional arrangements in the living section of the Main Hut are greater than that revealed in the plans of other surviving Heroic Era huts. The arrangement of bunks around the outside of the central communal area, reinforced as a focus by the raking pyramid ceiling, creates a spatial volume of great character.<br>Mawson’s Huts Historic Site is one of the small set of Heroic Era expedition bases which symbolise the first period of land-based scientific research and geographic discovery in Antarctica.
The attributes are the same as criterion (a).
E – Aesthetic characteristics: the place has outstanding heritage value because of the place’s importance in exhibiting particular aesthetic characteristics valued by a community or cultural group
Mawson’s Huts Historic Site is a cultural landscape that retains a sense of historic time and place. The weathering of the huts and the patination of the building fabric and of other artefacts has aesthetic value and serves as a gauge of time elapsed since the AAE and of the conditions endured by its members in this remote and hostile environment.<br>The weathered buildings of the Mawson’s Huts site, as well as the artefacts and the memorial cross, and their relationship to the vast Antarctic landscape around them with its snow and ice scapes, rocks and relentless winds, and the sea beyond, combine in creating an aesthetic entity conveying a strong sense of time and isolation.<br>The external form of the Main Hut is comprised of pyramid and hip roofs over low external walls. The building has aesthetic value, sitting with great repose in the landscape, made even more dramatic with a build-up of snow around it. The two different room forms also express the change in the AAE’s plans that brought them together in the first place.<br>This sense of awe inspiring isolation experienced by the expeditioners was first demonstrated in the evocative images of the AAE photographer, Frank Hurley. Mawson’s Huts Historic Site has continued to inspire artists, writers and visitors.
The attributes are encompassed in the entire Mawson’s Huts Historic Site.
F – Technical achievement: the place has outstanding heritage value because of the place’s importance in demonstrating a high degree of creative or technical achievement at a particular period
The place is strongly evocative of the endeavours of a group of Australians in one of the fiercest environments on Earth. The remaining buildings reflect the development of building design for Antarctica and extensive experimentation in coping with a new and extreme environment. The pyramid-form Main Hut illustrates ideas learned by Mawson during earlier expeditions, as well as ideas borne out of collaboration with an architect and the suppliers of materials. The whole emphasis of the building is toward the weather, and the vital need for a sturdy yet liveable base in a highly inhospitable climate.<br>The AAE Main Hut is part of the group of Heroic Era huts where pragmatic considerations for shelter in a foreign and remote environment created the development of the expedition hut form appropriate for polar regions. The Main Hut is, perhaps, a climax of this building type and is clearly designed for its functional purpose.<br>The AAE is the first Antarctic expedition to pioneer the use of wireless communication and the first to attempt to obtain an aeroplane for use in Antarctica.
The attributes are the Main Hut with living section, workshop and verandahs.
G – Social: the place has outstanding heritage value because of the place’s strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group for social, cultural or spiritual reasons
In Australian popular memory, the place is strongly associated with the heroic endeavours of a group composed primarily of Australians in the early twentieth century in one of the wildest and least known natural environments on Earth.<br>Mawson’s Huts Historic Site generally, with the Main Hut and Memorial Cross in particular, are symbolic of the AAE, its members, its achievements and its sacrifices.<br>The place has symbolic cultural value in the stories of the exploits of the AAE, particularly Mawson’s epic return from the tragic Far-Eastern Sledging expedition, and the role this has had in legend building and national psyche. The ‘communities’ who value these associations include the community of Antarctic veterans, the scientific community, and the Australian community as a whole. The place is especially important to the community of Antarctic workers past and present.
The attributes are the same as criterion (a).
H – Significant people: the place has outstanding heritage value because of the place’s special association with the life or works of a person, or group of persons, of importance in Australia’s natural or cultural history
Mawson’s Huts Historic Site is significant for its associations with all members of the AAE and the crew of the expedition vessel SY Aurora. The site’s association is not only with the eighteen members of the Main Base at Cape Denison, but also the eight members of the Western Base, and five members of the Macquarie Island Base. These activities and associations are important to Australia’s history in terms of early achievement in Sub-Antarctic and Antarctic scientific exploration and discovery.<br>Mawson’s Huts Historic Site is particularly associated with AAE members who continued their Antarctic associations (including Davis, Wild, Hurley and Moyes) and those who continued careers in science and applied science (including Madigan, Webb, Laseron, Stillwell and Kennedy). The AAE is significant for the photography of Frank Hurley, including his innovative use of colour images and cinematography.<br>The place is directly associated with Sir Douglas Mawson’s major Antarctic expedition, one which made him a hero to much of the Australian population. Mawson is a major figure in Australian science and played a huge role in Australia’s Antarctic history. The place is similarly, though less prominently in the public mind, associated with all the members of the AAE. A number of these men went on to have significant careers either in Antarctica and/or in science. Perhaps the best known of the other expeditioners is photographer and filmmaker Frank Hurley, who made a major contribution to his fields of endeavour.
The attributes are the same as criterion (a).
* I – Indigenous tradition: the place has outstanding heritage value because of the place’s importance as part of indigenous tradition
This criterion was not identified for the listing.
This criterion was not identified for the listing.
Table 2: Official Values as identified within the Commonwealth Heritage listing
Commonwealth Heritage criteria (Division 10.5 of the EPBC Regulations)
Official Values
Attributes
A – Processes: the place has significant heritage value because of the place’s importance in the course, or pattern, of Australia’s natural or cultural history
Mawson's Huts Historic Site is a place of great historical and social significance. The site is significant as the first base for scientific and geographical discovery in Antarctica by Australians. The Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-1914 (AAE) was the first large-scale scientific inquiry after Federation. Mawson's Huts is a complex historical site, a remnant of the "Heroic Era" of exploration in Antarctica. The expedition survived the isolation and the severe climate and the site illustrates this through its form and setting. The site is, for Australia, of political significance as the location for what eventually became sovereignty claims. The site fabric demonstrates the intense period of AAE occupation between 1912-13. The external relationship of buildings and artefacts illustrates the way the AAE organised their activities spatially.
All of the historic fabric including its form, layout, setting, external relationship of buildings, and associated artifacts.
B – Rarity: the place has significant heritage value because of the place’s possession of uncommon, rare or endangered aspects of Australia’s natural or cultural history
The site is significant as one of only nine wintering expedition bases built in Antarctica during the "Heroic Era" of exploration, of which only six now survive. This base is the least disturbed by human activities making it one of the most diverse and unique. The site is a fundamental part of the history of Antarctic exploration and of the two bases constructed by Australians during this period it is the only surviving base. The overall site with its range of buildings, scientific equipment and artefacts demonstrates life in Antarctica during this period.
The integrity of the overall site with its range of buildings, scientific equipment and artefacts.
C – Research: the place has significant heritage value because of the place’s potential to yield information that will contribute to an understanding of Australia’s natural or cultural history
The Mawson's Huts Historic Site is an area of substantial archaeological deposit and archaeological potential. The site has already yielded archaeological evidence providing insight into the living conditions experienced by the AAE. The interiors of the huts are important in that they contain evidence of the domestic and work life of the AAE. The site still retains a great deal of physical evidence which can be interpreted by archaeological study.
The whole site including archaeological deposits external to the huts, and associated artefacts.
* D – Characteristic values: the place has significant heritage value because of the place’s importance in demonstrating the principal characteristics of: a class of Australia’s natural or cultural places; or a class of Australia’s natural or cultural environments
This criterion was not identified for the listing.
This criterion was not identified for the listing.
E – Aesthetic characteristics: the place has significant heritage value because of the place’s importance in exhibiting particular aesthetic characteristics valued by a community or cultural group
The Mawson's Huts Historic Site is of aesthetic value. The location of the huts on a small rocky peninsula surrounded by a vast area of ice and sea evokes a powerful sense of isolation. Important visual elements also include the setting of the AAE hut structures and memorial cross and the British and New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition (BANZARE) Proclamation Pole. The building form of the huts themselves shows the functional and efficient planning that was undertaken in response to the site position and the elements. The weathering of the huts and decay of the remains gives a feeling of time elapsed and relates to the exposure to the elements.
The location and setting of the huts, memorial cross and Proclamation Pole, the form of the huts and their weathered patina.
F – Technical achievement: the place has significant heritage value because of the place’s importance in demonstrating a high degree of creative or technical achievement at a particular period
The Huts are of technical significance being excellent examples of the innovation and technology used to combat the extreme conditions of the Antarctic and provide functional living and working quarters. The huts were designed by Douglas Mawson and pre-fabricated in Australia before the expedition. Mawson developed the huts using his own knowledge and experience. The designs incorporated the need for wind resistance, simplicity, portability and resistance to the cold.<br> <br>Mawson's Huts are significant as evidence of Mawson's design theory that included modifying Australian building form for Antarctic conditions. Mawson's Huts were functionally designed using theory and experience. The use of verandahs and hipped roofs which are design features common to Australia were adapted to provide strength and insulation.
All aspects of the huts including their manufacture, design, form, fabric, detail, structure and thermal properties.
G – Social: the place has significant heritage value because of the place’s strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group for social, cultural or spiritual reasons
The scientific community, the Antarctic veterans community and the larger Australian community view Mawson's Huts as a symbol of the achievements of the AAE and Mawson himself. The AAE has become an integral part of Australia's exploration history and has gained a mythic quality. The science and veterans community value the AAE for its role in Antarctic scientific research and for the way it became a model for further exploration in the Antarctic.
All of the historic fabric including form, layout, setting, external relationship of buildings, and associated artifacts.
H – Significant people: the place has significant heritage value because of the place’s special association with the life or works of a person, or group of persons, of importance in Australia’s natural or cultural history
The site is significant for its association with Sir Douglas Mawson and the members of the AAE for whom the site was a base and home for two years. It is a memorial to the members who lost their lives, and also to the contribution that Mawson and his team made to Antarctic science and geography.
All of the historic fabric including its form, layout, setting, external relationship of buildings, and associated artifacts.
* I – Indigenous tradition: the place has significant heritage value because of the place’s importance as part of indigenous tradition
This criterion was not identified for the listing.
This criterion was not identified for the listing.
Other heritage values
Schedule 5A and 7A of the EPBC Regulations requires a Heritage Management Plan to describe the National and Commonwealth Heritage values of a place, as well as ‘any other heritage values of the place’. The other heritage values of Mawson’s Huts Historic site are embedded in the designation of the site as a Historic Site and Monument (HSM), and an Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA) within the Antarctic Treaty system and are described further below.
In 2004, the site was designated by the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties as HSM 77, Cape Denison for its ‘recognised historic value’ under Annex V of The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty 1991 (Main Hut and Memorial Cross in particular have been on this list and protected since 1972). The criteria for its designation under the Guidelines for the Designation and Protection of Historic Sites and Monuments includes: a) a particular event of importance in the history of science or exploration of Antarctica occurred at the place; and b) a particular association with a person who played an important role in the history of science or exploration in Antarctica. Here criterion a) relates to the significance of the 1911-14 Australasian Antarctic Expedition within the Heroic Era of Antarctic exploration; and criterion b) is referring to the memory of the leader of this expedition, Sir Douglas Mawson. There are strong parallels between these designated values and the Official Values of the National and Commonwealth Heritage listings.
In 2004, the site was also designated by the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties as ASPA 162, Mawson’s Huts, Cape Denison, Commonwealth Bay, George V Land, East Antarctica for its ‘recognised historic value’ and ‘outstanding aesthetic and wilderness value’ under Article 3, Annex V of the Environmental Protocol. Many of the protective measures within the ASPA 162 management plan are also reflected within this Heritage Management Plan. The Area was primarily designated to protect Mawson’s Huts, remaining artefacts and the associated landscape which hold considerable historic and scientific, as well as environmental and aesthetic, value within the Antarctic Treaty System.
5.3 Condition of the Heritage values
Mawson's Huts Historic Site is one of few sites of the Heroic Era in the twentieth century to survive largely intact with minimal intervention to its fabric, excluding preventive conservation measures. The site comprises historic structures, artefacts, features, and memorials.
Structures: Main Hut and the Magnetograph House are intact structures which have been stabilised with roof over-cladding systems to combat weathering impacts. Transit Hut and Absolute Magnetic Hut have lost significant amounts of cladding, but ongoing measures to stabilise the structures have been applied, such as framing and cladding, so that they can be conserved as standing ruins.
Artefacts: The artefacts inside the historic structures, as well as surrounding them, are in various states of preservation. There are thousands of artefacts across the site including Boat Harbour; however, the majority are situated in Main Hut and in the artefact scatter surrounding Main Hut.
Features: Two wireless masts to the north and south of Main Hut are fallen ruins. The survey markers are no longer locatable.
Memorials: The Memorial Cross and replica plaque in remembrance of Lieutenant Belgrave Ninnis and Dr Xavier Mertz on Azimuth Hill are still present. The pole, canister, copy of the original proclamation and replica plaque on Proclamation Hill are in a stable condition.
Although past condition assessments of Mawson’s Huts Historic Site have largely been based on the premise that the site’s heritage value resides in the historic fabric as a whole, the Official Values of the site, as described against the criteria above, are both tangible and intangible. Notably, the cultural landscape in which the historic fabric sits, provides aesthetic value as qualified under Criterion E in both listings (Tables 1 and 2). As such, in order to determine the overall condition of the site’s Heritage values, the integrity of the Official Values, both tangible and intangible, as well as the condition of the fabric must be assessed. The assessments below consider and incorporate advice received from internal and external heritage experts to this end.
A summary of the condition of the historic fabric of the historic buildings and structures is provided at Table 3, and the impact that the condition of these physical attributes has on the integrity of the heritage values is demonstrated in Table 4.
Assessment of the condition of the fabric
The condition of the historic fabric is an important factor in determining the overall condition of the site’s Heritage values, and can also be assessed according to terms consistent with the State of the Environment guidelines:
Poor: There are signs of damage from water penetration, rot, instability or structural failure of buildings, or erosion or major disturbance of sites. Might include the loss of a roof, fire damage, wall collapse or subsidence, major rising or falling damp damage, or major disturbance or damage to a site. Internally, walls, floors or joinery are missing, or in dilapidated condition. Loss of significant fabric, including landscape elements, movable objects, archaeological deposits, etc.
Fair: A site retains its important features, including (where relevant) landscape elements, vegetation, associated movable objects etc, but is in need of conservation action and maintenance. A building is structurally sound, but has had inadequate maintenance and is in need of minor repair. Internally, walls, floors and joinery are in need of minor repair, painting etc.
Good: A site has its important features well-maintained. A building is structurally sound, weathertight, and with no significant repair needed. Internally, walls, floor and joinery are well maintained.
An assessment of the historic fabric at Mawson’s Huts Historic Site based on observations from visitation to the site one decade apart in 2022, and in 2012 is provided at Table 4. While interim visitation and inspections have taken place, the following assessment represents a snapshot of the state of the site one decade apart.
Table 3: Condition of the historic fabric at Mawson’s Huts Historic Site
Fabric Year Condition Details
Main Hut: living quarters and workshop Criteria: A, B, C, D (NHL only), E, F, G, H 2012 Poor – Fair Living quarters – The new timber of the roof over-cladding boards obscures the original roof but allows the AAE fabric to remain in place. External walls have an integrity value of medium and internal walls have high integrity. While over-cladding of the southwest corner walls obscures the original fabric, most walls retain significant fabric. Some timber losses from the bunks and mezzanine areas [but].The original flagpole at the apex was poor: very fragile and visibly moved in winds (2002). It has been removed for conservation [and is now exhibited in the Mawson’s Huts Replica Museum], as structural failure was imminent (2007). The replica flagpole installed in 2006 represents this original feature of the hut.Workshop – The original boards beneath the over-clad roof are poor. The over-cladding boards are in good condition. Some damage to collar ties and shelving brackets and timbers.
2022 Poor – Fair Minor loss of fabric and ice ingress had occurred since the last assessment in 2016, however, increased abrasion and gaps in structure at corners and at height were observed, some battens were loose or lost, and the breathable membrane on the roof was visible in some areas under the cladding.Due to the low ice levels surrounding Main Hut many posts and foundations were visible; it was noted that the bottom of these posts remains in good condition with no visible signs of rot. All skylights were present and in fair condition, although glazing putty is failing. The replica flagpole on the roof continues to lose fabric in the lower parts of the pole where snow and ice are directed up and over the southern roof plane, hitting the flagpole at its base.Living quarters – Minimal areas of ice ingress, ice formation below the four skylights with stalagmite formation, majority of floor and darkroom clear of ice, but still areas of ice build-up not yet excavated. Minimal layer of hoar frost on the ceiling observed, likely due to less snow/ice in the Living Quarters and therefore less sublimation/refreezing. Loose or dislodged shelving. Extensive active corrosion observed on metal items. Significant mould observed and numerous odours detected. Floor level uneven. Workshop – Localised areas of ice ingress. Relatively thin layer of hoar frost. Some shelving collapse. Active corrosion observed on metal items. Distinct odour (like creosote) detected. Floor level uneven.
Magnetograph HouseCriteria: A, B, C, D (NHL only), E, F, G, H 2012 Good It is substantially intact. The interior is snow and ice free and structurally sound and walls are battered and wind harried.
2022 Fair No significant changes in condition were observed when compared with those noted in 2016.Roof over-cladding was deemed to be in good condition with minor abrasion noted; fixings were also in good condition.
Absolute Magnetic HutCriteria: A, B, C, D (NHL only), E, F, G, H 2012 Poor Despite stabilisation in 1997, the remaining wall boards are very thin and are only secured by the ice embedded around the boards.
2022 Poor No significant changes in condition were observed. Ice has accumulated to approximately half the height of the structure, predominantly to the east, with early melt to the west. All accessible timbers were secure on the structure or in the ice. No detached timbers were identified within or near the structure. Tar paper remnants are loose.
Transit HutCriteria: A, B, C, D (NHL only), E, F, G, H 2012 Fair The hut has been stabilised as timber had deteriorated markedly and the structure was on the verge of failure.
2022 Poor Significant loss of fabric had occurred since the last assessment in 2019, including the block with the hut’s position location on it, but some original fabric was reinstated during the 2021/22 visit. New timbers were fitted to the frames on the south facing wall, replacing the highly abraded timbers introduced in 2011, to completely over-clad this southern frame. Some loss of original cladding timbers on the north and east-facing walls was observed.
Cultural heritage artefacts (across entire site)Criteria: A, B, C, D (NHL only), E, G, H 2012 Poor – Good Main Hut – Heritage objects are in various conditions due to exposure in different micro-environments.Scatter – Some of the most sensitive exposed objects, finnesko (reindeer hide) boots and items of clothing were in very good condition (2002).Boat Harbour – Remains of the air tractor were located and returned to Australia for conservation purposes given their poor condition.
2022 Poor – Fair Main Hut – The artefacts are in varying states of preservation with many in poor or fragile condition. Corrosion is severe for many ferrous artefacts.Scatter – The condition of the artefacts varies depending on material and if exposed or buried. Typically, metal is abraded to a compact corrosion layer; glass and ceramics are broken; textiles are soiled and brittle but intact; wood is in good condition unless regularly abraded; leather, wool, fur and plant materials are in good condition. Presence of asbestos noted. Boat Harbour – Air tractor remains were returned to Australia between 2009 and 2011 and are now conserved in a museum setting. More fragments may reside in the artefact scatter.
Wireless masts ruins Criteria: A, B, C, D (NHL only), E (NHL only), G, H 2012 Poor Large fragments of the broken wireless masts and cables are mostly obscured by snow and ice.
2022 Poor Wood in good condition unless regularly exposed to abrasion and metal components typically abraded to a compact corrosion layer.
Survey markersCriteria: A, B, C, D (NHL only), E (NHL only), G, H 2012 Fair Exposed timber posts from survey markers were inspected and it was determined that no action was necessary (2002).
2022 Unknown No further detail supplied.
Azimuth Hill site: Memorial Cross and replica plaqueCriteria: A (NHL only), B (NHL only), D (NHL only), E, G (NHL only), H (NHL only) 2012 Poor – Good The cross remains in good condition apart from the continued slow loss of timber due to abrasion. The replica plaque is in poor condition as the backing board has virtually worn away at its extremities – timber loss almost 1 mm per year, 2002 to 2011.
2022 Fair Abrasion of the cross and plaque was observed, but the plaque remains legible with minimal surface abrasion. The upper parts of the backing board (replica plaque) have been completely abraded.
Proclamation Hill site: pole, canister, copy of proclamation and replica plaqueCriteria: E 2012 Unknown No further detail supplied.
2022 Good The pole is secure, has a vertical crack, some movement and abrasion, but no iron corrosion. The canister has a dull green patina and moves slightly on the pole. Details of copy of proclamation not supplied. Plaque remains legible with only minor abrasion of the timber.
Assessment of the integrity of the heritage values
Table 3 sets out the integrity of the heritage values of the site, assessed in 2024 according to the 2011 State of the Environment guidelines[1] for evaluating the integrity of heritage places. The guidelines determine the following categories:
Low: A site has had important features (such as structures, machinery, archaeological deposits etc) removed, or a new structure covers the site. A building has major elements that would contribute substantially to its heritage values, removed or extensively altered. Original cladding of walls or roof may have been replaced with newer materials or removed entirely, interiors may have been removed or destroyed, or re-arranged with the insertion of a new interior.
Where the values of the place do not relate directly to fabric (such as in a place valued for association with an historic event, community associations or use), judgement must be made on the impact of changes in diminishing the ability of the viewer to understand the associations of the place.
Medium: There has been some loss of important elements, but the site or building still retains sufficient significant fabric for its values to be understood and interpreted. Intrusions are not substantial.
High: The features that contribute to the value of the place are largely intact and not compromised by significant removals, modification or additions.
Table 4: Integrity of the heritage values at Mawson’s Huts Historic Site
Heritage value
Description
Fabric
Integrity
Foundation for Australia’s claim to the Australian Antarctic Territory<br>Criteria: A
The ongoing presence of, and associated conservation programs for, the historic structures at the site demonstrates Australia’s historical presence in the region, and supports its continuing presence in the region through effective administration of the Australian Antarctic Territory.
Access to the site to support the conservation program and subsequent longevity of the historic structures and artefacts, and therefore Australia’s continued presence in the area, remains challenging.
Medium<br>
Only Antarctic expedition mounted and undertaken by Australians during the Heroic Era<br>Criteria: A, B
Mawson’s Huts Historic Site remains the best representation of Australia’s Antarctic heritage, and provides the only tangible example of Australians’ contributions to the Heroic Era of Antarctic exploration and science in the early twentieth century.
Elements of the site are intact and have not been compromised by significant removals, modification or additions (although two structures are managed as standing ruins).
Medium<br>
One of six surviving Heroic Era expedition bases<br>Criteria: A, B
Mawson’s Huts Historic Site is one of a handful of historic huts on the entire continent which remain from any national expedition.
Elements of the site are intact and have not been compromised by significant removals, modification or additions, although two structures are managed as standing ruins and the other structures are in poor-fair condition.
Low<br>
The first expedition to pioneer the use of wireless communication and obtain an aeroplane for use in Antarctica<br>Criteria: A, F
The expedition was the first to pioneer the use of wireless communication and the first to attempt to obtain an aeroplane for use in Antarctica.
The wireless masts are now fallen ruins that are exposed to varying degree in any given season depending on environmental factors such as snow cover; and the air tractor has been salvaged from Boat Harbour for display in a controlled environment in Australia.
Low
Research potential to provide interpretation of what life was like during the expedition<br>Criteria: C
The ongoing presence of the artefacts both within and outside of Main Hut provide a record of activities at the site. These artefacts include, but are not limited to, the scientific equipment, food deposits, personal belongings and other everyday items which all provide physical evidence of what life was like during the expedition.<br>The archaeological record continues to be written as more artefacts are excavated and catalogued (and non-historic items removed). The artefact scatter surrounding Main Hut and the artefacts within the verandahs remain largely undisturbed.
Although there have been no intrusions to the site, the current state of the artefacts in the verandahs is unknown given they are rarely exposed, and as such any potential fabric loss is unknown also. The current state of many of the artefacts in the artefact scatter is known.
Medium<br>
The unique design and form of the buildings<br>Criteria: D (NHL only), F
These historic huts are the only structures to demonstrate the principal characteristics of Antarctic Heroic Era building techniques within Australian history. The incorporation of distinct Australian design characteristics, such as the verandahs and hipped roofs further contributes to the uniqueness of the structures.
The huts are largely intact and are not compromised by significant removals, modification or additions. External fabrics, including timbers, rope, sail cloth and wool have been preserved by over-cladding. Two structures are managed as standing ruins.<br>The interior of Main Hut continues to demonstrate the functionality of the living section of the huts that is greater than that of other surviving Heroic Era huts.<br>Main Hut in particular, continues to demonstrate unique building design methods that were employed to respond to the unique environment in which they are set, for example, their prefabrication to allow for ease of installation.
Medium<br>
The evocative cultural landscape in which the historic structures are installed<br>Criteria: E
The historic structures at the site (including the cross and pole) remain in their original positions within the landscape, and no new structures that impact the visual integrity of the site have been added. As such, the site continues to evoke a sense of isolation and inspiration in those who visit.<br>
The historic structures at the site remain in their original positions within the landscape.
Medium<br>
The patination of the historic structures that demonstrates significant time elapsed<br>Criteria: E
The structures continue to weather over time – a process that is valued for its demonstration of time elapsed since the structures were first installed in the landscape.<br>Roofing and part of the south-facing verandah wall (western end) on Main Hut, the roofing on Magnetograph House, and the south facing wall of Transit Hut have been over-clad with new timber, however, these materials are weathering sympathetically.
The historic structures at the site continue to undergo patination, despite the addition of new timbers necessary for the retention of external and internal structural integrity, and original fabrics. It should be acknowledged that patination of the original structures also equates to a loss of fabric through abrasion.
Medium <br>
The social value associated with the AAE<br>Criteria: G
The memory of the AAE is captured in the continuing existence of this site that has been subject to minimal intervention. The longevity of the structures at this site enable the broader Australian public, past and present Antarctic expeditioners, and the scientific community to continue to associate with the site and what it represents – that is, the admirable exploratory and scientific endeavours of a group of Australians in the region in the early twentieth century.
The continuing existence of the site with minimal intervention maintains the social value of the AAE.
Medium<br>
The memory of members of the AAE<br>Criteria: H
The site is directly associated with the memory and contributions of the members of the AAE, and more specifically, Sir Douglas Mawson as expedition leader.<br>The site is also a memorial to those who lost their lives in Antarctica – namely, Lieutenant Belgrave Ninnis and Dr Xavier Mertz.
The continued existence of the historic structures, including the Memorial Cross, commemorates the memory of these individuals.
Medium<br>
Chapter 6: Pressures
The National and Commonwealth Heritage values at Mawson’s Huts Historic Site will be subject to multiple pressures in the coming decade. While some of these can be forecast, there are a range of complexities associated with the ongoing management and conservation of the site that compound the predictability and subsequent response to pressures at the site. These pressures can be broadly defined as operational, environmental, visitational and inadvertent.
6.1 Operational
The extreme remoteness of the site from Australia and from Australian Antarctic and sub-Antarctic stations is a major logistical constraint on undertaking monitoring and implementing conservation works at the historic site. As Cape Denison is not within the direct shipping routes to Australian stations, visitation requires a dedicated voyage or diversion, or support from other vessels, including other National Antarctic Programs and tourism vessels, that operate in the area. Resourcing for this access to, and conservation of, the historic site is considered within the broader strategic priorities of the Australian Antarctic Division such as the operation, resupply and maintenance and scientific research at Australia’s four stations within the polar region.
The extreme and variable ice and weather conditions also pose a challenge to accessing the site. This was demonstrated by the presence of the iceberg ‘B09B’ which blocked sea access to the historic site between 2012 and 2017. Although now broken into a few parts, the berg still prevents sea access for much of the summer. In addition, ship-to-shore operations can be difficult due to no known reliably safe anchorage in Commonwealth Bay. Small boat operations are also very constrained due to the strong offshore winds, so helicopter access from vessels is often the only option.
As a consequence of the above logistical constraints, conservation expeditions to the historic site can be challenging to plan for, mount and deliver. Despite these challenges, a conservation expedition has been planned for undertaking within the first two years of this plan coming into effect.
6.2 Environmental
Climate change
The risks to heritage sites across the Antarctic from the effects of a changing climate are numerous and increasing in intensity. They include, but are not limited to, the following environmental factors which have been identified by Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties:
- changes in moisture levels that increases the exposure of historic fabrics to humidity, precipitation, wetting and flooding events
o MHHS: a high humidity environment could lead to corrosion of metal objects and increased microbial activity
- decreased sea ice extent and greater coastal erosion that can encroach on historic fabrics
o MHHS: there is potential for any artefact near Boat Harbour to be affected
- warmer weather that increases the frequency of ice-free conditions and changes freeze-thaw cycles of historic fabrics
o MHHS: increases the occurrence of these cycles affecting the structures and their contents, increases the likelihood of microbial activity, and increases the likelihood for the artefact scatter to be exposed
- increased storm activity that can increase affects such as damaging wind abrasion to historic fabrics
o MHHS: as the windiest place on earth at sea level, wind abrasion is a known pressure, so any increase poses an even greater threat to the stability of the historic structures
- increased marine acidification that causes adverse chemical reactions with historic fabrics
o MHHS: if the nature and direction of salt-bearing winds from the sea onto land changes, salt damage to the historic structures and artefacts could increase
- increased UV-levels that deteriorate historic fabrics
o MHHS: increased UV-levels could deteriorate both the timber structures, as well as any artefacts exposed to the sun
- increased microbial activity that affects organic historic fabrics
o MHHS: this increases the risk of structural damage, although moulds have only been recorded on fabrics, foods, timbers and papers in Main Hut so far
Exactly how these climate change related factors are being realised at Mawson’s Huts Historic Site is currently unknown, and therefore the need to gain a better understanding is a key management action within the life of this plan. It is certain, however, that these factors will change how the environmental pressures described below affect the site over the coming decade.
Wind
Cape Denison is often cited as the windiest place on earth at sea level, with gusts exceeding 200 kph (as recorded by the University of Wisconsin Automatic Weather Station installed and maintained on site since 1990). The greatest single long-term threat to the structures is abrasion from wind-driven snow and ice (‘corrasion’), which wears down the surface of softer fabrics such as timber, as well as ‘plucking of weathered fibres’ on the leeward sides of structures. Abrasion resistance in timber is generally a function of density, but weathering of the surface is potentially more significant in determining the loss rate at leeward locations.
Continued analysis of monitoring data will contribute to a better understanding of the processes of wind damage. For example, vibration data loggers are used to determine the effects of ice removal on the stability of the historic structures, and timber thickness measurements monitor the rate at which timber is being abraded from the cladding and historic wooden structures at the site.
The wind also severely constrains outside work by greatly lowering the perceived and effective temperature on exposed skin, even during the relatively mild summer. Weather conditions may disrupt plans for work to protect the site’s values for days or weeks.
Snow/ice/melt water
Wind-driven drift snow can include very fine particles (0.1 – 0.4 mm) that penetrate even minute gaps, filling buildings and covering their contents. Seasonal variation in drift snow and ablation can make it difficult to record and monitor cultural heritage objects.
Snow and ice on, in and around the huts exert various forces on the structures and their contents. Compacted snow and ice build-up inside Main Hut has broken roof and platform structural members, warped and broken shelves and shelving brackets, and obscured or damaged artefacts. Associated freeze-thaw cycles also accelerate corrosion of metal artefacts and fittings. However, this build up has also added a thermal and physical mass to the building that may have assisted in resisting wind loads and suppressing daily and seasonal variations in temperature and relative humidity. While obscuring artefacts, the main effect of ice in the verandahs has been to help to stabilise the structure.
Water appears to have no deleterious effect on the structural capacity of timber. Both the bending and compressive strengths of timber are enhanced by low temperature and high moisture content. The low temperatures and high moisture content may assist the structural capacity of the internal framing of Main Hut.
Temperature, relative humidity and salt
While the snow and ice associated with cold temperatures have some adverse impacts on the fabric of the huts, the cold also has several advantages. In particular, the cold reduces fungal growth that may damage the fabric. While various stain and mould fungi are found at low temperatures – and moulds have been recorded on fabrics, foods, timbers and papers in Main Hut – they do not cause structural damage.
The level of relative humidity is generally high as cold air cannot hold much water vapour. High relative humidity can lead to corrosion and fungal growth, but structural steel and metal objects inside Main Hut are largely not threatened by corrosion, unless subjected to wetting and drying cycles associated with snow and ice contact. The daily variability of relative humidity is low. However, to fully understand the associated risks with high humidity and the lack of air movement within the huts, continued analysis of monitoring data would be required. Metal objects located elsewhere on the site often have higher levels of corrosion.
Data loggers have been used to monitor the external Cape Denison environment and micro-environments inside Mawson’s Huts since 1998. Temperature and relative humidity data accumulated over this time, supplemented by corrosion studies (using bimetallic CLIMAT bolts and copper-steel coupons), has been used to guide conservation decisions regarding ice removal from the interior of Main Hut and to provide information on the effects of the high humidity environment on the structures and the corrosion of iron fastenings and fittings. This data has also been used to monitor the impacts of snow and ice removal on internal microenvironments of Main Hut. While this monitoring will continue, additional monitoring of moisture within walls and ceiling will also be undertaken. This information will assist in understanding the climatic impact of the over-cladding of the roof and the potential need for better ventilation.
There is only limited evidence of salt damage, possibly as a result of the powerful effect of the prevailing offshore winds that limit the movement of salt-bearing winds from the sea onto land. In order to better understand the impact of salt on the timbers and internal artefacts, the incorporation of methods to monitor chloride concentrations within the conservation program will be investigated.
Fauna impacts
Although Cape Denison contains Adélie penguin colonies, none are located near the buildings. However, the historic fabric has the potential to injure fauna. There is no evidence of fauna damaging huts or artefacts (such as seals rubbing against structures or objects). Adélie penguins have been observed to move small artefacts. There is no evidence of insect attack at the site (generally, insects such as termites and woodborers require similar temperatures to fungi).
Fire
One of the greatest risks to timber buildings in polar areas is fire as a result of accidental or deliberate human action. There are no known instances of fire caused as a result of atmospheric disturbance in Antarctica.
To reduce the risk of fire, the environmental monitoring system installed inside Main Hut, contains no exposed wires. These stand-alone loggers monitor temperature, relative humidity and vibration levels. Data from loggers are downloaded seasonally (where possible). Smoking or having naked flames in or near the huts is prohibited.
6.3 Visitational
With an exponential increase in the number of tourists visiting Antarctica since the height of the global pandemic (COVID-19) in 2021, and a growing interest in the East Antarctic region by tourism operators, it is anticipated that more people will be accessing Mawson’s Huts Historic Site in the future. Commonwealth Bay is also no longer impeded by an iceberg, and changing patterns of sea ice formation could increase accessibility to the site more generally.
Although visitation presents a powerful opportunity to transmit the values of the site to the public (both national and international), several threats are posed to the vulnerable historic structures and objects during this process. Some of these include the trampling of fragile artefacts concealed by snow cover, souveniring of objects from within the site and, most significantly, leaving the huts in an unsecure state resulting in a severe build-up of snow and ice internally, which could in turn catastrophically undermine the entire structural integrity of the huts and lead to eventual collapse.
Unregulated tourists (i.e. persons who do not hold, or are not covered by a permit to access the ASPA) also pose a risk to the site as their motivations for, and intended activities when, visiting are unknown. Given the nature of the site and its access limitations, however, the likelihood of this risk being realised is relatively low.
6.4 Inadvertent
Works required to address structural deficiencies, and conservation works to reconstruct fittings broken by ice loads, reveal spaces or objects, or otherwise preserve key elements of the site, while increasing overall structural integrity, may pose risks to other fabric of the site. Such works programs need to be cautiously designed and assessed prior to their implementation in order to minimise these risks. This does not, however, preclude emergency intervention in the event of unanticipated threats to the structures.
Managing two of the huts – Transit Hut and Absolute Magnetic Hut – as standing ruins with minimal intervention increases the risk of fabric loss, for instance through demolition by a blizzard which leaves behind only foundations and disjointed, failed building materials. Further analysis of this issue, and possible remedies, will be undertaken during the life of this plan.
Chapter 7: Principles and Policies
7.1 Principles
The National and Commonwealth Heritage management principles, defined by Schedules 5B and 7B of the EPBC Regulations, outline the overarching objective for managing these Heritage places, that is: ‘to identify, protect, conserve, present and transmit, to all generations, their National/Commonwealth Heritage values’. These principles also describe the approach to management: taking into account the best available knowledge; ensuring its use is consistent with the conservation of the identified heritage values; making provisions for community involvement; and providing for regular monitoring, review and reporting on the identified heritage values.
The policies and guidance within this management plan acknowledge and incorporate this objective and approach.
7.2 Policies
Schedules 5A and 7A of the EPBC Regulations require management plans for National and Commonwealth Heritage places to include policies and guidance on the protection of Heritage values and proposed activities on site.
This management plan sets out four policy areas that support the protection of Mawson’s Huts Historic Site Heritage values:
Management and Conservation
Use and Access
Documentation and Observation
Communication and Interpretation
Table 5 provides details on these four policy areas that support the protection of Mawson’s Huts Historic Site’s Heritage values. The policy approach has evolved significantly since the first Conservation Management Plan was developed for the site in 2001, predominantly to align with governmental needs for an effective Heritage Management Plan that, as a legislative instrument, maps directly to statutory requirements while maintaining adaptability in its implementation.
Table 5: Policy areas that support the protection of Mawson’s Huts Historic Site’s Heritage values
MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION
1 a) Decision-making must be consistent with legislative requirements, and informed by accepted guidelines and scientific data All management decisions with the potential to affect the heritage values of the place must be founded on a clear understanding of those values as defined by the National and Commonwealth Heritage criteria. Expert guidance documents should be consulted in the decision-making process. These include Australia ICOMOS’ The Burra Charter and the Antarctic Archaeology Guidelines published by the ICOMOS International Polar Heritage Committee. The impact and appropriateness of particular actions should be determined based on a critical analysis of relevant data, and where appropriate, a Heritage Impact Assessment.
1 b) Consultation and use of appropriate expertise All management decisions will be founded on the principles of best practice and, where appropriate, advice obtained through consultation with, or employment of, qualified professionals with specialist technical expertise. The particular expertise needed will be dictated by the task required. - Conservation works plans will be reviewed by conservation professionals. - On-site assessment works shall be carried out by suitably qualified or experienced staff, consultants or contractors. - Construction works shall be carried out by suitably qualified and, where appropriate, specialised tradespersons.- Excavation of cultural heritage objects from snow and ice should be undertaken by suitably qualified heritage experts, such as an archaeologist (to supervise and document the exercise) and a conservator (to assess and manage the objects revealed), or by appropriately trained staff. All contractors and consultants, and volunteers working on the site must be made aware of management plans for the site, and have been provided with training and awareness regarding the site’s Heritage values and applicable statutory requirements.
1 c) Any actions proposed that could impact the historic fabric, including removal, will comply with legislative obligations Any works that could have a significant impact on the historic fabric require careful consideration. To help determine whether an action is likely to have a significant impact under the EPBC Act, a self-assessment and a Heritage Impact Assessment (and if required, an EPCT Act referral) should be undertaken. Refer to DCCEEW’s Significant Impact Guidelines 1.2 for guidance on determining significant impacts on the environment.
1 d) Heritage Impact Assessments should be undertaken Heritage Impact Assessments should be undertaken prior to works beyond routine maintenance, for example, works undertaken to urgently stabilise structures. This assessment must include a preliminary assessment of likely impact of the activity on the Antarctic environment (including heritage) as required under the ATEP Act.This applies to: - any works on the site, other than routine maintenance (as described in the Monitoring and Maintenance Manual) or urgent stabilisation work, which are not specified in this Plan- any proposal to substantially modify an existing use or to introduce a new use to the site- any proposal to restore to a natural condition or otherwise modify the landscape containing cultural features- any works that may affect subsurface archaeological evidence (this should be preceded by archaeological assessment and recording. The field/team leader will have overall responsibility for supervising the undertaking of works specified in a works plan when on site in accordance with relevant permits and authorisations.
1 e) Minimal intervention and impact conservation processes will be preferred The AAE and BANZARE fabric will be conserved, using the conservation processes of maintenance, preservation and restoration where appropriate.- Maintenance and preservation are generally appropriate.- Restoration of fabric and spaces is appropriate for reassembling displaced original components, or to remove non-significant fabric or accretions, such as snow or ice, which should be removed from the living section and workshop of Main Hut, subject to ongoing environmental monitoring confirming that their removal poses no risk to structural integrity.- Reconstruction of lost elements will be permitted where necessary (for example, to ensure structural integrity).- Introduction of new fabric is the least preferred process, but may be required for security, and structural or environmental integrity. It should not adversely impact on the structure, or visual or environmental integrity of the buildings and should be reversible where possible.
1 f) No development, adaptive reuse or property divestment No new development is planned for, or should occur, within the ASPA Visual Protection Zone (see ASPA 162 management plan). Work may be undertaken to maintain or improve existing facilities outside the Visual Protection Zone that support work to conserve the site’s National and Commonwealth Heritage values. No adaptive reuse of the site will take place. The buildings and associated material constituting the site are the property of the Australian Government.
1 g) Unexpected finds protocols should be followed Relevant AAD procedures relating to unexpected finds (including both historical archaeology and skeletal remains) will be followed in the event of unforeseen disturbance. This includes the management of any discoveries of pre-1958 remains in accordance with Resolution 4 (2001) of the Antarctic Treaty system which requires that such discoveries be granted interim protection and assessed for their historical significance.
1 h) A precautionary approach is followed where historic fabric poses an immediate health and/or safety threat Consistent with Section 341ZC of the EPBC Act, where historic fabric poses an immediate threat to the safety of personnel within their vicinity, a precautionary approach will be adopted to minimise adverse impacts on heritage values. Such an approach will support the modification of historic fabric where ‘there is no feasible and prudent alternative to taking the action; and all measures that can be reasonably taken to mitigate the impact of the action on those values are taken’. Examples include the removal of unsecured asbestos to ensure personnel safety.In the event that emergency works are required, the field/team leader shall take all reasonable steps to ensure that these occur expeditiously. Where possible, the nature of the emergency and the proposed actions to be carried out should be widely communicated. A full report on the emergency works must be provided to AAD site managers as soon as practicable.
1 i) Conservation of Main Hut and Magnetograph House should retain original configurations The intact buildings, which have had their original structures conserved (through repairs and over-cladding), should be maintained to ensure their structural stability. The long-term goal is for the huts to retain as much original fabric as possible, be structurally stable, clear of internal ice (on the proviso that removal does not negatively affect the internal microclimate), and with internal spaces, fittings and objects in their December 1913 configuration.
1 j) Conservation of Transit Hut and Absolute Magnetic Hut should not obscure the effects of a century of exposure The standing ruins, which have been subjected to some intervention to prevent total destruction, should be conserved as necessary to preserve them as roofless weathered ruins, preventing their collapse. The long-term goal is for the ruins to evoke the effects of almost a century of exposure, rather than be returned to their 1912-13 state. Stabilisation frames or other works including replacement of defective elements with the same material may be fitted where structural integrity of the hut is poor and on the verge of failure.
1 k) Conservation of other remains and objects should be prioritised according to relative significance, and should preserve their original context Significant fabric should be conserved in its original context, and exceptionally significant objects should be treated to prolong their lifespan (preferably on-site, and returned to their original location). The external scatters should not be re-arranged for display. The objective is for the site to appear as it was left in 1913 (or 1931, for those parts modified by BANZARE), while allowing for an appreciation of the effects of a century of exposure.
1 l) Movable cultural heritage objects will be preserved in situ where possible Any movable objects at the site will be prioritised for conservation and interpretation in situ, under the supervision of an archaeologist/conservator, wherever possible. If objects are to be removed from the site – to allow essential conservation works to ensure their survival, or temporarily for education or display – they will be fully documented before they are removed. Objects that are removed should be returned to the site once the conservation work or display for which they were removed is complete, and placed back in the original location, where appropriate. The return of an artefact to the location from which it was removed is generally preferable unless further damage may result from return. Objects that are assessed as at risk by an archaeologist/conservator and requiring ex situ conservation or display will be considered for inclusion within the National Museum of Australia’s National Antarctic Heritage Collection. Any objects that pose an environmental, health or safety hazard may be exempt from the above process, and disposed of appropriately and in accordance with existing protocols for hazardous materials.
1 m) Historic fabric located in the artefact scatter and broader surrounds of the site area will be monitored Any historic fabric located with the boundaries of the historic site, for example the artefacts within the artefact scatter adjacent to Main Hut, will be surveyed and monitored (under the supervision of an archaeologist, wherever possible) before any intervention is undertaken. This is to establish an understanding of the pressures that these artefacts are enduring, whether environmental or anthropogenic, before action is taken that could further impact their integrity.
1 n) Conservation works will be prioritised according to heritage value and risk level The conservation of historic structures and artefacts that:- best demonstrate the Official Values of the site (e.g. are the best or only example of a heritage value, listed or otherwise), - and/or are most at risk (e.g. in the poorest condition, or are threatened by imminent damage or destruction) will be prioritised.
USE AND ACCESS
2 a) Access for preservation is prioritised Access will be prioritised to support the preservation of the site’s National and Commonwealth Heritage values. Providing for public access for interpretation is a lesser priority.
2 b) Access to the public, commercial and non-government organisations will be controlled Subject to protection of the National and Commonwealth Heritage values, Environmental Protocol considerations, and public safety, any access to the site will be permitted. Access to the historic site will be subject to the conditions prescribed by Site Managers, as per individual statutory approval decisions. Generally, permits may be issued for on-site: - conservation, inspection, maintenance, management and/or monitoring work- scientific research (using non-historic infrastructure where possible)- educational activities, including tourism, consistent with the aims and objectives of this management plan.
2 c) Environmental impacts should be avoided or minimised Conservation and management actions must have regard to their broader environmental impact and be planned to avoid or minimise adverse impact to either the built and/or natural environment. Proposed actions should be developed in consultation with relevant environmental procedures, policies, and/or managers. This approach is in line with Australia’s broader environmental commitments under the EPBC Act and ATEP Act.
DOCUMENTATION AND OBSERVATION
3 a) Recording should precede and follow conservation works All records of intervention and maintenance of the site will be managed according to relevant AAD record-keeping protocol.Archival recording shall be carried out prior to any conservation work on a building, object or cultural landscape element, and on completion of conservation works. Archival recording will also be required during the removal of any fabric on site that exposes significant fabric or details. Archival recording before conservation works commence shall include references to measured drawings of all buildings and structures and photographic recording. Archival recording after conservation works are complete shall comprise ‘as-built’ drawings and photographs of all buildings and structures that have been the subject of conservation works, indicating the location and detail of changes. Records of cultural heritage objects (at the site and for those objects in Australia which are the property of the Commonwealth) will be kept using a computer-based information management system and are requestable from the Australian Antarctic Division. A list of current datasets is at Appendix G.No protocol for the management of sensitive information is required.
3 b) Site observation should be regular and integrated Monitoring of the physical condition of the site, over time, is needed to measure the effectiveness of conservation actions, and to obtain data for decision-making.Within the limitation imposed by the site’s remoteness and extreme weather conditions, the condition of the site and its National and Commonwealth Heritage values (as well as its ASPA values) should be monitored and reported upon where possible, in an integrated and regular fashion. The primary aim of a Monitoring and Maintenance Manual is to detect and evaluate any incremental change affecting the National and Commonwealth Heritage values of the site, in order to identify the need for strategies to respond to any potential or actual adverse impacts. The Monitoring and Maintenance Manual should be regularly reviewed, and conservation works programs should be adjusted in response to monitoring outcomes.
COMMUNICATION AND INTERPRETATION
4 a) Stakeholders should be encouraged to contribute The participation of stakeholders is essential to ensuring commitment and cooperation in the conservation of the site. Stakeholders will be consulted on changes to the site’s management plans, and on other key management decisions which could affect the site and its Heritage values. Information about the site will be made publicly available, and where possible, opportunities to submit comments on major or unusual proposed activities will be provided.Key stakeholders include:- Australian heritage organisations, collections agencies, professional groups and individuals (including those who have worked at the historic site previously – the Mawson’s Huts Foundation)- Commonwealth and state and territory government agencies- relatives of AAE members- international community – including Antarctic Treaty parties, the International Polar Heritage Scientific Committee, tourism operations and other national heritage trusts (such as the New Zealand Antarctic Heritage Trust).
4 b) Research will be encouraged and coordinated The following actions will be taken by the AAD to improve management:- support and coordinate research associated with understanding and protecting the site- seek to acquire and hold in copies of research undertaken on the site and maintain associated databases- liaise with other authorities with an expertise and interest in managing similar sites.
4 c) Private resources may be encouraged to supplement public resources Cooperation with bodies competent to undertake conservation activities at the site will be encouraged where doing so would further the objectives of this management plan in an efficient manner.
4 d) Interpretation material should be prepared and published for use off-site and on-site The extreme remoteness and inaccessibility of this site increases the need for the communication of its values. Few members of the public will visit the site, so it is paramount that information regarding its cultural significance is communicated effectively otherwise. Information will be published on dedicated websites, and non-government organisations can assist with the transmission of the values. Provision of an informative and interactive experience for those who wish to learn about Mawson’s Huts, without setting foot at Cape Denison, should also be investigated.Interpretation material for on-site usage will be limited to signage in accordance with the Antarctic Treaty system guidelines, and the guidance of an experienced guide who possesses heritage expertise and knowledge of the site and its structures. No new signs or plaques will be erected within the historic site unless approved by the Minister or delegate.
Chapter 8: Monitoring and Review
8.1 Monitoring
Monitoring of the condition of the heritage values, both tangible and intangible, of Mawson’s Huts Historic Site will occur throughout the life of this plan. This will include the monitoring of the Implementation Plan (Chapter 9) on an annual basis to monitor the progress and impact of planned actions. For further detail on monitoring objectives, refer to the Implementation Plan (Chapter 9).
8.2 Review
This Heritage Management Plan will be reviewed every five years in accordance with Sections 324W and 341X (for National and Commonwealth Heritage places) of the EPBC Act.
A review will also be undertaken if any of the following occur:
the National and Commonwealth Heritage values of the place change
important previously unforeseen management issues present a potential impact on the heritage values of the place
the policies contained in the plan do not achieve the stated management objectives.
In preparing this plan, a review of the previous Heritage Management Plan, Mawson’s Huts Historic Site Management Plan 2013-2018, was conducted. The review found that although the plan was consistent with the National and Commonwealth Heritage Management Principles, and provided a framework for the protection and conservation of the site's National and Commonwealth Heritage values, there was a need to better:
align some actions with relevant legislative requirements
structure the plan to reflect a best practice approach
commit to more effective implementation.
These findings have been considered and are reflected in this plan.
Chapter 9: Implementation Plan
9.1 Management actions and timeframes
Table 6 outlines the actions required for conserving, protecting and presenting the National and Commonwealth Heritage values of the site.
Table 6: Actions and timeframes to implement the four policy areas
Policy area Outputs Actions Responsibility Timing
Management and Conservation Heritage Assessment Undertake an assessment to review the Heritage values as described in the 2001 Significance Assessment and update the National and Commonwealth Heritage listings as required. AAD Within 3 years
Works Program Develop a Works Program to support delivery of obligatory conservation works on site. Conservation works will be prioritised for historic structures and artefacts that best demonstrate the Official Values of the site (e.g. are the best or only example of a heritage value), and/or are most at risk (e.g. in the poorest condition, or are threatened by imminent damage or destruction). AAD Within 3 years
Works Plans Develop Works Plans to align the objectives of any given conservation expedition with the overarching Works Program. AAD Prior to each conservation expedition
Unexpected Finds Protocol Develop this protocol to ensure the protection of all heritage values at the site. AAD Prior to the first conservation expedition undertaken within the life of this plan
Monitoring and Maintenance Manual Develop and finalise a Monitoring and Maintenance Manual. AAD External experts Following the next conservation expedition
Interpretation Plan Develop an interpretation plan for on-site decision-making by conservators. AAD External experts Following the next conservation expedition
Archaeological report Develop a report that describes:
the condition and integrity of artefacts across the site
maps artefacts across the entire site including in the scatter and further afield (wireless mast ruins and survey markers)
updates unexpected finds protocol. AAD External experts Following the next conservation expedition
Climate change vulnerability assessment Undertake a vulnerability assessment on the potential impacts posed by a changing climate at the site within the next decade. AAD External experts Following the next conservation expedition
Authorisations Acquire permissions in accordance with the ATEP Act and refer significant proposed actions for approval in accordance with EPBC Act requirements. AAD As required
Ongoing discovery Continue to: locate, assess and record the condition of artefacts, including the wireless mast ruins and survey markers AAD Expedition members During the next conservation expedition
Use and Access Visitation strategy Develop a strategy for site visitation including consideration of site security; directing, monitoring and surveying of visitor movement. AAD Within 5 years
Research facilitation Develop and/or review proposals to undertake heritage research at the site, and facilitate the conduct of priority heritage research. AAD As required
Documentation and Observation Protocol for off-site documentation Develop a protocol for:- undertaking recording prior to, during, and on completion of, any intervention at the site, and- documenting cultural heritage objects on the Australian Antarctic Heritage Register AAD Within 5 years
Ongoing on-site documentation Continue to document condition of objects identified or exposed, and to produce detailed expedition report upon RTA. AAD Expedition members As required
5-year statutory review Review the Heritage Management Plan according to sections 324W and 341X of the EPBC Act AAD At least every 5 years after the plan is made
Communication and Interpretation Communication Plan Develop a communication plan to ensure that the National and Commonwealth Heritage values of the site are effectively communicated to site visitors and the broader public AAD External partners Within 5 years
Digital interpretation Develop potential avenues for digitisation for broader accessibility and site interpretation AAD External partners Within 5 years
Chapter 10: Other Tools
10.1 Decision-making process
To help determine whether an action could have a significant impact on a National and/or Commonwealth Heritage listed place, the AAD will undertake the following steps for a self-assessment as required:
Conduct a preliminary assessment: This preliminary assessment should indicate if: there is potential for a heritage value to be impacted, and includes:
review the Department’s manuals on managing National and Commonwealth Heritage places;
review the Department’s guidelines for Matters of National Environmental Significance and actions on, or impacting upon, Commonwealth land when considering whether the proposed action could cause one or more of the heritage values to be lost, degraded or damaged, or notably altered, modified, obscured or diminished; and
review the likely impact of the activity on the Antarctic environment (including heritage) as required under the ATEP Act assessment and authorisation process by considering the ASPA Management Plan and relevant Antarctic Treaty system guidance, and completing an ATEP Act application.
If the self-assessment determines that the impacts to the site will not be significant, then no further assessment is required. If the preliminary assessment indicates potential for a significant impact or is inconclusive, a Heritage Impact Assessment should be performed as detailed in step 2.
Perform a Heritage Impact Assessment (if required): Undertake an HIA (EPBC Act WNHB Self-Assessment) if more detail is required to determine whether the proposed action might have a significant impact on the heritage value/s, and includes:
a detailed description of the site in question and any heritage places and values that are in the vicinity;
a detailed description of the proposed action;
an impact assessment (using the Significant Impact Guidelines 1.2); and
possible mitigation measures or recommendations.
If the HIA determines that the impacts to the site will not be significant, then no further assessment is required. If the HIA indicates potential for a significant impact or is inconclusive then a referral should be prepared.
Submit an EPBC Act Referral: If the HIA indicates that a significant impact is likely.
Review the Department’s EPBC Act referral form application template: Preparation guide 2023 when referring an action for further consideration by the Minister.
10.2 Supporting materials
Several supplementary decision-support tools aimed at assisting with the assessment of the condition of Mawson’s Huts Historic Site heritage values and ongoing protection of the site are available, or in development at the time of writing this plan. These tools are intended to provide managers and practitioners with supplementary decision-making support both on and off the ice.
Table 7: Supplementary decision-support tools
Document Author Contribution Access
EPBC Act WNHB Self-Assessment Guidelines Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water These guidelines assist with the process of deciding whether to submit a referral to the Minister for the Environment where a proposed action may have a significant impact on a World Heritage property and National andCommonwealth Heritage places. Available at the DCCEEW website
Working Together: Managing National Heritage Places, 2008 Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts A guide for Commonwealth agencies when preparing Heritage Management Plans for National Heritage places Available at the DCCEEW website
Working Together: Managing Commonwealth Heritage Places, 2019 Department of the Environment and Energy A guide for Commonwealth agencies when preparing Heritage Management Plans for Commonwealth Heritage places Available at the DCCEEW website
The Australia ICOMOS Charter for Places of Cultural Significance (The Burra Charter), 2013 Australia International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) Provides best practice advice for managing heritage places Available at the Australia ICOMOS website
Antarctic Archaeological Guidelines, 2022 International Polar Heritage Committee (ICOMOS) Provides best practice advice for managing heritage within Antarctica Available at the ICOMOS website
Revised Guidelines for the assessment and management of Heritage in Antarctica, 2022 Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties Provides guidance on how to assess historic site or monuments for potential designation within the international Antarctic Treaty system Available at the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat website
Management Plan for Antarctic Specially Protected Area No. 162, Mawson’s Huts, Cape Denison, Commonwealth Bay, George V Land, East Antarctica Australia (on behalf of all Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties) The Management Plan for the protection of the designated values with the Area. Available at the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat website
Guidelines for handling of pre-1958 historic remains, 2001 Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties Provides guidance on how to handle pre-1958 historic remains whose existence or present location is not known Available at the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat website
Supplementary information for the State of the Environment, 2011 report Michael Pearson and Duncan Marshall A study that provides guidance material for assessing the condition of heritage places Available at the National Library of Australia
The EPBC Act and the Commonwealth Heritage List Fact sheet, 2007 Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts A fact sheet on the basic premise of the Commonwealth Heritage List Available at the DCCEEW website
UNESCO Guidance and Toolkit for Impact Assessments in a World Heritage Context United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Guidance for heritage management institutions, governments and project developers, to help find the best possible solutions to meet both conservation priorities and development needs. Available at the UNESCO website
Appendices
Appendix A: Compliance with EPBC Regulations
This Heritage Management Plan’s compliance with Schedules 5A and 7A, EPBC Regulations
Regulation A management plan must: HMP
Schedule 5A/7A (a) Establish objectives for the identification, protection, conservation, presentation and transmission of the National/Commonwealth Heritage values of the place; Chapter 1
Schedule 5A/7A (b) Provide a management framework that includes reference to any statutory requirements and agency mechanisms for the protection of the National/Commonwealth Heritage values of the place; Chapter 4
Schedule 5A/7A (c) Provide a comprehensive description of the place, including information about its location, physical features, condition, historical context and current uses; Chapter 2Chapter 3
Schedule 5A/7A (d) Provide a description of the National/Commonwealth Heritage values and any other heritage values of the place; Chapter 5
Schedule 5A/7A (e) Describe the condition of the National/Commonwealth Heritage values of the place; Chapter 5
Schedule 5A/7A (f) Describe the method used to assess the National/Commonwealth Heritage values of the place; Chapter 5
Schedule 5A/7A (g) Describe the current management requirements and goals, including proposals for change and any potential pressures on the National/Commonwealth Heritage values of the place; Chapter 6
Schedule 5A/7A (h) Has policies to manage the National/Commonwealth Heritage values of the place, and include in those policies guidance in relation to the following: Chapter 7
(i) the management and conservation processes to be used; Chapter 7
(ii) the access and security arrangements, including access to the area for Indigenous people to maintain cultural traditions; Chapter 7
(iii) the stakeholder and community consultation and liaison arrangements; Chapter 7
(iv) the policies and protocols to ensure that Indigenous people participate in the management process; Chapter 7
(v) the protocols for the management of sensitive information; Chapter 7
(vi) planning and managing of works, development, adaptive reuse and property divestment proposals; Chapter 7
(vii) how unforeseen discoveries or disturbing heritage values are to be managed; Chapter 7
(viii) how, and under what circumstances, heritage advice is to be obtained; Chapter 7
(ix) how the condition of Commonwealth Heritage values is to be monitored and reported; Chapter 7
(x) how the records of intervention and maintenance of a heritage place’s register are kept; Chapter 7
(xi) research, training and resources needed to improve management; Chapter 7
(xii) how heritage values are to be interpreted andpromoted; Chapter 7
Schedule 5A/7A (i) Include an implementation plan; Chapter 9
Schedule 5A/7A (j) Show how the implementation of policies will be monitored; Chapter 8
Schedule 5A/7A (k) Show how the management plan will be reviewed. Chapter 8
Appendix B: National Heritage Listing
Category
Detail
Place ID
105713
Mawsons Huts and Mawsons Huts Historic Site
Mawsons Huts and Mawsons Huts Historic Site, Dumont D'Urville Station, EXT, Australia
List
National Heritage List
Class
Historic
Legal Status
Listed place (27/01/2005)
Place File No
9/01/002/0008
Source: Australian Heritage Database
Summary Statement of Significance<br>Mawson's Huts Historic Site is a place of great historical and social significance. The site is significant as the first base for scientific and geographical discovery in Antarctica by Australians. The Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-1914 (AAE) was the first large-scale scientific inquiry after Federation. Mawson's Huts is a complex historical site, a remnant of the "Heroic Era" of exploration in Antarctica. The expedition carried out major scientific experiments and laid the foundation for the eventual claim to a very large portion of the Antarctic continent by Australia.<br> Mawson’s Huts Historic Site is rare as one of only nine wintering expedition bases built and as the only surviving site representing the work of an Australian expedition of the Heroic Age. It is one of only six sites, of all nationalities, remaining from this era. The expedition survived the isolation and the severe climate and the site illustrates this through its form and setting. The overall site with its range of buildings, scientific equipment and artefacts demonstrates life in Antarctica during this period. This base is the least disturbed by human activities making it one of the most diverse and unique bases that remain.<br> The place has a strong symbolic association with Sir Douglas Mawson, the AAE party and their heroic activities, and is evocative of Mawson’s leadership and the scientific endeavours undertaken. Mawson’s story has become part of Australia’s exploration history and, as such, is part of the nation’s cultural tradition. The place is directly associated with Sir Douglas Mawson’s major Antarctic expedition, which made him a hero to much of the Australian population. The AAE has become an integral part of Australia's exploration history and has gained a mythic quality. The place is highly prominent in the consciousness of large numbers of Australians; in particular, the science and veterans community value the AAE for its role in Antarctic scientific research and for the way it became a model for further exploration in the Antarctic.<br> The Site remains as isolated and remote as it did in 1912, with its historic structures clinging to the small peninsula of rock that is Cape Denison. This sense of a truly isolated place is powerful, both visually and symbolically. The Main Valley and adjacent ridges exhibit an aesthetic landscape value by providing a strong sense of place, with the Main Hut located snugly near the water’s edge and the group of scientific huts contained within a defined valley, dominated by the Memorial Cross and the BANZARE Proclamation Pole on adjacent ridges. The building form of the huts themselves shows the functional and efficient planning that was undertaken in response to the site position and the elements. The aesthetic qualities of the interior pyramid space, defined by the raked timber ceiling, timber beams and skylights rising over the central area, together with the evocative evidence of its historic use, produce an emotive response in visitors and viewers alike.<br> The place is strongly evocative of the endeavours of a group of Australians and others in one of the fiercest environments on Earth. The weathered buildings, as well as the artefacts and the memorial cross, and their relationship to the vast Antarctic landscape around them with its snow, ice, rocks and relentless winds, and the sea beyond, combine in creating an outstanding aesthetic entity conveying a strong sense of time and isolation. The weathering and survival of the huts and the decay of other artefacts, as a result of years of exposure to hostile conditions, provide archaeological and scientific research potential in the area of materials deterioration and conservation. It also serves as a gauge of time elapsed since the AAE and of the conditions endured by its members in this remote and hostile environment.<br> The AAE is significant as the first expedition to pioneer the use of wireless communication on the Antarctic continent, linking the main base at Cape Denison with mainland Australia via the relay station established on Macquarie Island. This expedition was also the first to obtain an aeroplane for use in Antarctica, although due to damage it was utilised by the expeditioners as an air tractor. The AAE is also significant for the photography of Frank Hurley, including his innovative use of colour images and cinematography. The surviving fabric, such as wireless masts and artefacts on site and in collections in Australia and overseas, demonstrate the intense period of AAE occupation between 1912-13.<br> The whole of Cape Denison contains evidence of the AAE, with a concentration of evidence in the Main Valley. This is an area of substantial archaeological deposit and archaeological potential. The site has already yielded archaeological evidence providing insight into the living conditions experienced by the AAE. The interiors of the huts are important in that they contain evidence of the domestic and work life of the AAE. The site still retains a great deal of physical evidence which can be interpreted by archaeological study. Associated scientific specimens and cultural object collections from Cape Denison, in situ or now in Australia, have continuing potential to yield information. Within Cape Denison, original points from which surveying, cartographic, meteorological and magnetic observations were made are still extant, including the three science huts, which still provide the facility to continue comparative scientific research.<br> The Huts are of technical significance being excellent examples of the innovation and technology used to combat the extreme conditions of the Antarctic and provide functional living and working quarters. The huts were designed by Douglas Mawson and pre-fabricated in Australia before the expedition. The Main Hut illustrates ideas learned by Mawson during earlier expeditions, as well as ideas borne out of collaboration with an architect and the suppliers of materials. The use of verandahs and hipped roofs reflects common Australian design features adapted to provide strength and insulation. The designs incorporated the need for wind resistance, simplicity, portability and resistance to the cold. The Main Hut is, perhaps, a climax of the Heroic Era building type, and is clearly designed for its functional purpose.<br> <br>Official Values<br>Criterion A: Events, Processes<br>Mawson’s Huts Historic Site was the first base for scientific and geographical discovery in Antarctica by Australians. The site of Mawson’s Huts marks the location of the earliest large-scale scientific inquiry by Australians outside Australia following Federation. The Australasian Antarctic Expedition (AAE) 1911–1914, carried out major scientific experiments and laid the foundation for the eventual claim to a large portion of the Antarctic continent by Australia. The expedition was also the first to pioneer the use of wireless communication and the first to attempt to obtain an aeroplane for use in Antarctica.<br>The place is one of six surviving Heroic Era (1897 to 1917) expedition bases which symbolise the first period of land-based scientific research and geographic discovery in Antarctica.<br> The attributes are embedded in the AAE fabric including four timber buildings, two intact and two as standing ruins. These include the Main Hut with living section, workshop and verandahs (intact), the Magnetograph House (intact), Absolute Magnetic Hut (standing ruin with no roof), and Transit Hut (standing ruin with no roof).<br>Mawson’s Huts Historic Site also includes wireless masts (ruins), survey markers and memorials, and a large amount of stores, equipment, animal food caches and AAE artefacts remain in concentration around the Main Hut and across the whole of Cape Denison.<br>Criterion B: Rarity<br>The AAE was the first and the only expedition organised, manned and supported by Australians during the Heroic Era. It is, therefore, unique in Australian history. The Mawson’s Huts Historic Site is the only surviving site representing the work of an Australian expedition of the Heroic Age. It is one of only six sites remaining from the international contribution to the Heroic Age exploration of Antarctica.<br>The site has a high level of integrity, retaining the Main Hut, plus the three scientific huts and a large number of artefacts.<br> The attributes are the same as criterion (a).<br>Criterion C: Research<br>The whole of Cape Denison contains evidence of the AAE, with the largest concentration in the Main Valley. This is an area of substantial archaeological deposit and archaeological potential. The interiors of the huts contain evidence of the domestic and work life of the AAE during the period of occupation (1912-1913). The site retains a great deal of physical evidence which can be interpreted by archaeological study.<br>As an archaeological resource, the significance of Mawson’s Huts Historic Site lies not only in the provisions and equipment available to expeditions during the early twentieth century, but also in the insights they provide into human responses to isolation and confinement and extreme climactic conditions. Of all the remaining historical hut sites in the Antarctic region, it appears to have been subject to the least intervention. The scientific huts still allow for research to be undertaken, with potential to yield information on climatic impact and environmental change as well and material deterioration and conservation in arctic environments.<br>The significance of the site comes from the powerful interplay of documentary and physical evidence in Australia and physical evidence on-site. Unlike sites where only physical evidence or only documentary evidence is available, the significance of the site has the potential to be accessed and understood both on-site and elsewhere.<br> The attributes are the AAE fabric including the four timber buildings, and the original points from which surveying, cartographic, meteorological, and magnetic observations were made. The interiors of the Main Hut and the Magnetograph House include foodstuffs, personal memorabilia and clothing. A large amount of stores, equipment, animal food, caches and AAE artefacts remain in concentration around the Main Hut and the whole of Cape Denison.<br>Criterion D: Principal characteristics of a class of places<br>Mawson’s Huts Historic site is one of six surviving Heroic Era wintering bases. It demonstrates the range of building uses, scientific equipment and artefact types typical of its class and period. All elements of the site contribute to the demonstration of what a Heroic Era base was like.<br>The buildings were purpose built for polar winter accommodation and were associated with specific scientific and exploration expeditions. The design form, construction materials, structure, functional planning and services of these huts all reflect the function of the expedition and their polar location. As a group, Mawson’s Huts retain the most intact and diverse range of accommodation and scientific huts of all the Heroic Era complexes.<br>The site of the extant AAE Main Base demonstrates, in its surviving form and setting, the isolation and harsh conditions encountered by members of the expedition in their important work. It shares the typical characteristics of Heroic Era huts, it is located in a remote area for temporary occupation associated with scientific and geographic discovery, the design and placement of the buildings, the artefacts, materials used, the type of scientific equipment and the scientific data and samples collected.<br>The intactness of the buildings as a group demonstrates their function during a particular and intense period of time. The weathering of the huts and the patination of the building fabric and of other artefacts serves as a gauge of time elapsed since the AAE. The Main Hut contains a clear and strong internal structure and an efficiently planned use of space which provided both the functional requirements of accommodating eighteen men and a strong sense of communal focus and camaraderie around the central table, so well documented in Hurley’s photographs.<br>Mawson’s Huts Historic Site demonstrates the types of building uses, scientific equipment and artefacts typical of Heroic Era scientific and discovery expeditions. The use of verandahs and hipped roof form provides Mawson’s Main Hut with distinct Australian design characteristics.<br>The strength and clarity of the spaces and functional arrangements in the living section of the Main Hut are greater than that revealed in the plans of other surviving Heroic Era huts. The arrangement of bunks around the outside of the central communal area, reinforced as a focus by the raking pyramid ceiling, creates a spatial volume of great character.<br>Mawson’s Huts Historic Site is one of the small set of Heroic Era expedition bases which symbolise the first period of land-based scientific research and geographic discovery in Antarctica.<br> The attributes are the same as criterion (a).<br>Criterion E: Aesthetic characteristics<br>Mawson’s Huts Historic Site is a cultural landscape that retains a sense of historic time and place. The weathering of the huts and the patination of the building fabric and of other artefacts has aesthetic value and serves as a gauge of time elapsed since the AAE and of the conditions endured by its members in this remote and hostile environment.<br>The weathered buildings of the Mawson’s Huts site, as well as the artefacts and the memorial cross, and their relationship to the vast Antarctic landscape around them with its snow and ice scapes, rocks and relentless winds, and the sea beyond, combine in creating an aesthetic entity conveying a strong sense of time and isolation.<br>The external form of the Main Hut is comprised of pyramid and hip roofs over low external walls. The building has aesthetic value, sitting with great repose in the landscape, made even more dramatic with a build-up of snow around it. The two different room forms also express the change in the AAE’s plans that brought them together in the first place.<br>This sense of awe inspiring isolation experienced by the expeditioners was first demonstrated in the evocative images of the AAE photographer, Frank Hurley. Mawson’s Huts Historic Site has continued to inspire artists, writers and visitors.<br>The attributes are encompassed in the entire Mawson’s Huts Historic Site.<br>Criterion F: Creative or Technical achievement<br>The place is strongly evocative of the endeavours of a group of Australians in one of the fiercest environments on Earth. The remaining buildings reflect the development of building design for Antarctica and extensive experimentation in coping with a new and extreme environment. The pyramid-form Main Hut illustrates ideas learned by Mawson during earlier expeditions, as well as ideas borne out of collaboration with an architect and the suppliers of materials. The whole emphasis of the building is toward the weather, and the vital need for a sturdy yet liveable base in a highly inhospitable climate.<br>The AAE Main Hut is part of the group of Heroic Era huts where pragmatic considerations for shelter in a foreign and remote environment created the development of the expedition hut form appropriate for polar regions. The Main Hut is, perhaps, a climax of this building type and is clearly designed for its functional purpose.<br>The AAE is the first Antarctic expedition to pioneer the use of wireless communication and the first to attempt to obtain an aeroplane for use in Antarctica.<br> The attributes are the Main Hut with living section, workshop and verandahs.<br>Criterion G: Social value<br>In Australian popular memory, the place is strongly associated with the heroic endeavours of a group composed primarily of Australians in the early twentieth century in one of the wildest and least known natural environments on Earth.<br>Mawson’s Huts Historic Site generally, with the Main Hut and Memorial Cross in particular, are symbolic of the AAE, its members, its achievements and its sacrifices.<br>The place has symbolic cultural value in the stories of the exploits of the AAE, particularly Mawson’s epic return from the tragic Far-Eastern Sledging expedition, and the role this has had in legend building and national psyche. The ‘communities’ who value these associations include the community of Antarctic veterans, the scientific community, and the Australian community as a whole. The place is especially important to the community of Antarctic workers past and present.<br> The attributes are the same as criterion (a).<br>Criterion H: Significant people<br>Mawson’s Huts Historic Site is significant for its associations with all members of the AAE and the crew of the expedition vessel SY Aurora. The site’s association is not only with the eighteen members of the Main Base at Cape Denison, but also the eight members of the Western Base, and five members of the Macquarie Island Base. These activities and associations are important to Australia’s history in terms of early achievement in Sub-Antarctic and Antarctic scientific exploration and discovery.<br>Mawson’s Huts Historic Site is particularly associated with AAE members who continued their Antarctic associations (including Davis, Wild, Hurley and Moyes) and those who continued careers in science and applied science (including Madigan, Webb, Laseron, Stillwell and Kennedy). The AAE is significant for the photography of Frank Hurley, including his innovative use of colour images and cinematography.<br>The place is directly associated with Sir Douglas Mawson’s major Antarctic expedition, one which made him a hero to much of the Australian population. Mawson is a major figure in Australian science and played a huge role in Australia’s Antarctic history. The place is similarly, though less prominently in the public mind, associated with all the members of the AAE. A number of these men went on to have significant careers either in Antarctica and/or in science. Perhaps the best known of the other expeditioners is photographer and filmmaker Frank Hurley, who made a major contribution to his fields of endeavour.<br> The attributes are the same as criterion (a).<br> <br>Description<br>Cape Denison is located in the centre of Commonwealth Bay on the eastern end on the Australian Antarctic claim. The Cape is a 60 km-wide stretch of coast in George V Land some 3,000 km south of Hobart, Australia. It projects into Commonwealth Bay from the steeply rising wall of the ice cap of continental Antarctica. The ice cliffs at either end of the 1.5 km wide Cape (Land’s End and John O’Groats) and the sea hemming the northern shore form a natural sense of enclosure. Cape Denison forms a series of rugged ridges and ice filled bays, its topography defined by a series of four rocky ridges and three ice, snow and glacial moraine filled valleys. The largest, and most westerly of these valleys contains the AAE Main Base. The seaward end of this valley, the Main Valley, becomes Boat Harbour. The Main Hut of the AAE is located as close as was practicable to the edge of Boat Harbour in the Main Valley. On the west ridge of the valley is the Memorial Cross, erected by the AAE in 1913, and on a ridge to the east is Proclamation Hill, where Mawson returned in the BANZARE expedition of 1929-31 to claim formal possession of King George V Land. In addition to the Main Hut there are three AAE hut structures in the Main Valley which were built to undertake scientific studies. The Transit Hut is located 30m east of the Main Hut. The Magnetograph Hut and the Absolute Magnetic Hut are located at the seaward end of the Proclamation Hill, 260m to the east of Main Hut.<br>Wind is the dominant feature that defines this place as different to most other Antarctic landscapes. The cycle of katabatic winds create an annual average of 70km per hour, making it the windiest place on earth at sea level. The wind is a constant force from the south, and carries with it huge snow drifts, often creating blizzard conditions at the Cape.<br>Mawson's Huts and Mawson’s Huts Historic Site are one of only six complexes of the Heroic Era to survive largely intact. The complex comprises four timber buildings (two intact and two as standing ruins), wireless masts (ruins), survey markers and memorials. Evidence of human occupation features on Cape Denison relate to two significant phases of occupation. The AAE fabric (1911-1914) includes the Main Hut with living section, workshop and verandahs (intact), the Magnetograph House (intact), Absolute Magnetic Hut (standing ruin with no roof), Transit Hut (standing ruin with no roof), Puff-Anemometer pole (and other possible remains of scientific instrument sites on Anemometer Hill), timber alignment posts for magnetic observations (east and west below the surface), Bench Mark just to the east of the Main Hut, Eleven survey marks (east of Main Valley), Transit survey posts (timber pillar in Transit Hut and north mark, north of Transit hut), Two fallen wireless masts and associated chains, aerial wire and insulators, Memorial Cross (and replica plaque 1986) and associated artefacts scattered by humans and the wind across Cape Denison. The 1931 BANZARE fabric includes: Proclamation Flag Pole (AAE Puff-Anemometer mast) and canister attached to pole, replica plaque 1986 and a copy of proclamation 1978 on Anemometer Hill.<br>The strongly defined topography of Cape Denison and its short but intense phases of human occupation have resulted in a cultural landscape setting for the place as a whole. Fabric relating to the AAE is scattered across Cape Denison, but is concentrated in the westernmost Main Valley, and on the two ridges either side of this valley. Thousands of artefacts have been recorded at Cape Denison over the last decade, and these are largely in a reasonable condition. A large amount of undocumented stores, equipment, animal food caches and AAE artefacts remain in concentration around the Main Hut and across the whole of Cape Denison.<br>The Main Hut consists of two pre-fabricated Oregon timber huts, originally intended to be two separate accommodation huts, became a living section and workshop. The structural timbers are bolted together with tongue-and-groove Baltic internal and external cladding. The roof is pyramid shaped and supported in the centre by four 100mm by 100mm posts. A 1.5m wide verandah, under the same roof, surrounds the structure on three sides.<br>The 7.3m by 7.3m living section, provided kitchen and sleeping facilities. Double bunks are arranged around the walls, with the stove, cooks table, dining table and two separate rooms occupying the remainder of the available space. The two rooms comprised Mawson's room and the dark room.<br>There is no direct external access. Entry is via the workshop, which is attached to the northern side of the living section. The workshop is a rectangular plan of 5.5m by 4.9m. It has a hipped-roof and a 1.5m wide verandah on the east and west sides. The western verandah contains access to the cellar and roof as well as a latrine. There are four skylights over the living section, all with glass and timber covers which can be opened. There are two skylights in the workshop also with glass and timber covers.<br>The Magnetograph House is a pre-fabricated rectangular Oregon timber hut of 5.5m by 2m. Structural timbers are bolted together with tongue-and-groove Baltic pine used for internal and external cladding, with sheets of tar paper cladding below the timber boards. It has a shallow pitched skillion roof which has a copper ventilator. The external door is a double 'stable' ships door taken from the shipwrecked Clyde at Macquarie Island.<br>The Absolute Magnetic Hut is a deteriorated ruin, 1.8m square, consisting of only a complete south wall with portions of the east wall and the framing of the north and west walls. The frame is constructed of leftover Oregon timber with timber boarding and lining of tar paper.<br>The Transit Hut is an Oregon timber framed hut with no roof. There is external timber boarding which originally had internal tar paper lining. The structure has one door in the northeast corner.<br>The Memorial Cross upright and crossbar are fabricated from remnant timber of approximately 170mm by 170mm. The upright projects 3.4m above the surrounding rocks and is capped by a 65mm wide metal collar. The crossbar is 2.2m long with a 65mm wide collar at each end. The crossbar is fixed to the upright 2.2m above the rocks. The crossbar has been blown off numerous times and was re-attached in 1931 by BANZARE, 1978 by the Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions (ANARE) and a third time by the AAP Mawson's Huts Foundation expedition in 1997/98. The plaque is a replica or the original and was attached by ANARE in 1978. It has the same inscription as the original.<br>The Proclamation Pole and Plaque consists of a small plaque and proclamation have been affixed to the mast of the AAE anemometer station located on Anemometer Hill. The original proclamation was replaced by ANARE with a replica in 1978; the original plaque was replaced by ANARE with a replica in 1988.<br>The Main Hut and the Memorial Cross are included on the Antarctic Treaty list of Historic sites and Monuments.<br> <br>History<br>Heroic Era of Continental Exploration 1897 to 1917<br>By the Mid-nineteenth century, after all the coastal regions of Antarctica were known, exploratory interest in the continent began to wane. However, during the last decade of the century, political and scientific interest in Antarctica was revived, as scientific societies actively urged continental exploration.<br>This stimulus gave rise to the ‘Heroic Era of Antarctic exploration’, a flurry of land-based exploratory expeditions carried out from 1897 to 1917 by parties from Britain, Norway, Germany, France, Belgium, Australia, New Zealand, Scotland and Japan. The expeditions were regularly reported in the media, captured the public imagination, making many exhibitioners national heroes for their bravery, physical strength and endurance, and encouraged the development of exploration as a nationalistic competition.<br>In total, fifteen scientific expeditions set out to explore Antarctic in the Heroic Era. An understanding of the continent became the focus of exploration, rather than the exploitation of its resources, which characterised the periods before and after the Heroic Era. The explorers and scientists collected vast amounts of magnetic, meteorological, geological, and biological data.<br>The Heroic Era was the first phase of inland exploration of the last continent to be explored and claimed. It was an intense period of exploration, on foot and sledge, of previously uninhabited land and the last major geographical landmarks, including the South Pole.<br> It was in the Heroic Era that explorers actually lived on the continent and built huts in which to survive the harsh conditions. The Huts and other physical remains of the Heroic Era are scant, and are tangible evidence of this important era. A total of nine prefabricated huts were constructed in Antarctica during this era, with six surviving today.<br>Planning and Preparation<br>Douglas Mawson returned to Adelaide from Shackleton’s 1907–1909 British Antarctic Expedition as a local hero. He also returned convinced of the importance of Antarctica to Australia and immediately began to plan a return visit to ‘reduce to the terms of science’ the unexplored land directly to the south of Australia, between Cape Adare in the east and Gaussberg, over 3,000km to the west. Initially, Mawson had thought to join Scott’s impending expedition of 1910. However, their plans were not compatible; Scott primarily wanted to explore the South Pole and had less interest in pursuing the scientific research that Mawson wished to undertake in the surrounding region. Mawson then sought and received the support of Shackleton for the new expedition, before Shackleton pulled out leaving Mawson to pursue his own plans. Mawson was a very competent organiser and he tirelessly sought funding and equipment from private sponsors, scientific organisations and government, including travelling to Britain twice, with side trips to the USA and Europe. On one trip, he obtained (with Shackleton’s assistance) a steam yacht; previously part of the Newfoundland sealing fleet, which he renamed SY Aurora, and a rare REP aeroplane through Vickers & Co.<br>The Expedition’s Scientific Objectives<br>Mawson’s intentions for the expedition were scientific as well as exploratory. It is this focus on scientific research that sets the Australian Antarctic Expedition (AAE) apart from most other Heroic Era expeditions. Mawson wished to focus on subjects associated with his interests in geology, including the theory of continental connection between Australia and Antarctica. His interests extended to the examination of the processes of glaciation and climate.<br>Mawson outlined his objectives for the planned Australian Antarctic Expedition in a proposal to the Australian Association for the Advancement of Science in late 1910/early 1911 as follows:<br>- magnetic charting for navigational purposes;<br>- geological studies;<br>- biological studies (including the identification of new species); and<br>- the establishment of a wireless weather station (to assist with weather forecasting).<br>Mawson intended to make use of several recently invented technologies on the expedition, including the aeroplane and wireless communication. The latter was an important part of the plan and was to be of much value for communication between the bases and the Aurora.<br>AAE Expeditioners<br>The AAE was composed of thirty-one, mostly young, men (an average age of approximately twenty-four), plus the crew of the Aurora. Many of these men were graduates from Australian universities. Five were New Zealand born. Londoner John King Davis was appointed deputy leader and captain of the Aurora. (Davis was a veteran of Shackleton’s earlier expedition during which he had apparently rescued Mawson from a crevasse). Dr Xavier Mertz (a Swiss alpine expert) and Bellgrave Ninnis (Lieutenant with the Royal Fusiliers) also came out from England on the Aurora with the husky dogs. Antarctic veteran Frank Wild, a member of Scott’s and Shackleton’s earlier expeditions, was to be a continental base leader.<br>Up to three bases were planned for mainland Antarctica, depending upon conditions found, and another for Macquarie Island. It was planned that twelve men would be located at the Main Base, eight and six at the other two continental bases and five on Macquarie Island.<br>The Macquarie Island Base party was comprised of George Ainsworth, Leader/Meteorologist; Leslie Blake, Cartographer and Geologist; Harold Hamilton, Biologist; Charles Sandell, Wireless Operator and Biologist; and AJ Sawyer, Wireless Operator.<br>The Main Base party was composed of Dr Douglas Mawson, Commander of the Expedition; Lieutenant Edward Frederick Robert Bage, Astronomer, Assistant Magnetician and Recorder of Tides; Cecil Thomas Madigan, Meteorologist; Lieutenant BES Ninnis, in charge of Greenland dogs; Dr Xavier Mertz, in charge of Greenland dogs; Dr Archibald Lang McLean, Chief Medical Officer, Bacteriologist; Francis Howard Bickerton, in charge of air tractor sledge; Alfred James Hodgeman, Cartographer and Sketch Artist; James Francis Hurley, Official Photographer; Eric Norman Webb, Chief Magnetician; Percy Edward Correll, Mechanic and Assistant Physicist; John George Hunter, Biologist; Charles Francis Laseron, Taxidermist and Biological Collector; Frank Leslie Stillwell, Geologist; Herbert Dyce Murphy, in charge of expedition stores; Walter Henry Hannam, Wireless Operator and Mechanic; John Henry Collinson Close, Assistant Collector; and Dr Leslie H Whetter, Surgeon.<br>The Western Base party was composed of Frank Wild, Leader, Sledge-master; Andrew Dougal Watson, Geologist; Dr Sydney Evan Jones, Medical Officer; Charles Turnball Harrisson, Biologist; Morton Henry Moyes, Meteorologist; Alexander Lorimer Kennedy, Magnetician; Charles Archibald Hoadley, Geologist; and George Harris Sarjeant Dovers, Cartographer.<br>Design Concept for the Expedition Huts<br>Mawson based his design concepts for accommodation in Antarctica on his experience of conditions during the expedition with Shackleton. Mawson had the opportunity to learn from the positive aspects and shortcomings of earlier Heroic Era huts.<br>Mawson developed the idea of the huts in response to the weather conditions in Antarctica. From the outset, he believed they should be designed as a ‘pyramid on a square base, to ensure stability in heavy winds’. Later, he declared that the form was a direct result of the necessary ‘strength to resist hurricanes, simplicity of construction, portability, and resistance to external cold’.<br>The external sidewalls of the living huts were to be constructed to a height of approximately five feet, under a centrally pitched roof. A verandah would then surround the structure on three sides, continuing the profile of the main roof. Mawson claimed ‘that the function of the verandah was to serve as a store and to assist in keeping the hut warm’. Stacked storage boxes placed around the perimeter of the hut would extend the line of the roof through to ground level. The combination of the main hut and the verandah roof forms, as well as the boxes and snow, would form a pyramid and direct the wind over the building.<br>It was expected that snow would surround the hut on all sides, and largely enclose the verandah. Access would then need to be made through tunnels in the snow. Additionally, as light into the interior would be subsequently restricted (windows within the walls would be ineffectual due to the build up of snow), roof lights were installed in each of the four roof planes.<br>Once all the requirements for the weather conditions and working environment were understood, Mawson’s idea was given to Alfred J Hodgeman, an articled architect and draftsman from Adelaide and member of the forthcoming expedition, to clarify and develop the details. It is likely that Hodgeman resolved the design with the necessary level of detail, including details such as the sizes required for the timber-framing members. When the team arrived in Antarctica, it was to be Hodgeman who would direct the construction of the prefabricated structure at the Main Base.<br>Acquisition of the Huts<br>Mawson obtained huts from building companies in four states, another example of his logistical skills. Two square-plan, pyramid-roofed accommodation huts designed to Mawson’s model were acquired. The largest was supplied by George Hudson and Sons Ltd — Wholesale Timber Merchants, a large Sydney building firm that also sold prefabricated timber dwellings as ‘Ready-Cut-Homes’, largely to a rural constituency. Hudson’s provided a detailed breakdown of component members and an accompanying specification outlining the detailed erection process.<br>A second pyramid-roofed hut was supplied by Messrs Anthony, a Melbourne firm, and a third smaller hip roof hut was supplied by Walter and Morris Limited, Sarnia Timber Yards, Adelaide.<br>In addition to the three accommodation huts, a small hut was purchased from Risby Brothers, Hobart, just prior to departure. Allom states that this hut was the Magnetograph Hut used at Cape Denison. It is likely from Ainsworth’s account that the Macquarie Island hut was also purchased in Hobart from Risby’s.<br>Voyage to Antarctica and Establishment of Bases<br>Macquarie Island Base<br>The Aurora departed Hobart on 2 December and arrived at Macquarie Island on 11 December 1911. Upon its arrival, two shipwrecks were discovered; one found to be the Clyde, the crew of which was stranded on the Island. Also living on the Island were about six men who hunted whales for blubber meat during summer.<br>The aim of the AAE party was to set up a wireless relay station and scientific base. The Commonwealth Meteorological Bureau also assisted with its function as a meteorological station. The AAE established their base in the narrow spit of land between Hasselborough and Buckle Bays at the Island’s northern end.<br>Wireless masts, a receiving hut and an engine house were erected at the summit of a 150ft hill, now know as Wireless Hill. Masts, engine parts and other equipment were transported with the use of a flying fox. Although two-way wireless communication with Antarctica did not succeed until February 1913, such was the value of the weather forecasting that the base provided to Australia that the Commonwealth maintained the base after the AAE.<br>The Macquarie Island Hut was located at the base of Wireless Hill. It was 7m x 5m in plan and was internally subdivided to include a cubicle for Ainsworth (the team leader who was also from the Commonwealth Meteorological Bureau) and a Darkroom/Laboratory space. A tank was used to collect water from the roof.<br>Hodgeman had prepared a sketch of the hut prior to departure and the timbers had been ‘cut and fitted in Hobart, indicating that Risby’s in Hobart may have fabricated the hut. The Aurora left Macquarie Island on 23 December 1911, after a stay of almost two weeks.<br>Main Base: Adélie Land Station<br>Antarctica was first sighted from the Aurora on 6 January 1912. After following the coast for several days, Mawson was eager to establish a base as soon as possible. He felt that if the base was established too far to the west, both the magnetograph readings from the South Magnetic Pole as well as the communication signals with Macquarie Island would be too weak. On 8 January the party arrived at Cape Denison, Commonwealth Bay. Mawson decided to establish the Main Base here and noted that ‘as a station for scientific investigations, it offered a wider field than the casual observer would have imagined’.<br>Mawson’s original plan was to establish three bases along the Antarctic coastline. Because of poor weather and insufficient time, however, Mawson decided to combine two of the bases at Cape Denison, under his leadership, with the other base, under the leadership of Wild, to be established further to the west. Bad weather and strong winds delayed the unloading process and establishment of the Main Base until January 1912.<br> Western Base: Queen Mary Land Station<br>One week after the team landed at Cape Denison, the Western Party, led by Frank Wild, set out on the Aurora to establish a Western Base. It was difficult to find an appropriate site, as the coast was largely formed by steep cliffs and ice shelves. However, upon reaching the Shackleton Ice Shelf in Queen Mary Land some 2,000km to the west of Commonwealth Bay, on 21 February 1912, a landing was possible.<br>Supplies were quickly moved to the top of an ice cliff with the use of a flying fox, and a camp was established 600m back. The hut was successfully erected within the first week and was named ‘The Grottoes’ by the party.<br>After dropping off the Western Base party, the Aurora, apart from re-provisioning in Australia, undertook a further two separate voyages of Antarctic oceanographic survey work before returning to relieve the expedition.<br> Main Base Structures<br>Main Hut<br>The Main Hut at Cape Denison was located in a valley between two ridges 60m from the edge of Boat Harbour, a natural indent in the coast. It was sited on a level section of rocky ground, partially protected to the south by a rocky outcrop. Following the decision to combine two expedition bases, the construction of the Main Hut utilised two huts originally meant for accommodation. The largest pyramid-roofed hut, supplied by George Hudson and Son (and described here as the living section), was used to accommodate all of the eighteen-man party. The other hip-roofed hut from Adelaide, originally meant for another location, was utilised as a workshop. No doubt, the changes in use of the huts affected the fabric and arrangements inside the two huts. Both sections were constructed of an Oregon timber frame of larger-than-normal sections, with bolted connections at each junction. Both had external and internal linings of tongue-and-groove Baltic pine boarding. Sheets of tar paper lining were used as additional wind protection under the external roof and wall boards.<br>The living section was a single space 24 feet by 24 feet in plan (7.3m x 7.3m) with a pyramid roof over, supported in the centre by four 100mm x 100mm posts. A five foot (1.5m) wide verandah surrounded the structure on three sides, under the same roof. The verandah area was used as a biological, food, and general store and assisted in insulating the hut from the weather. There was no direct external access to the living section. Entry was via the workshop. The timber framing structure was bedded into holes exacted into the rock with explosives. Legend has it that urine was used to freeze the stumps into the rock and fifty tons of stones were placed between the stumps.<br>Internally, the living section provided sleeping and kitchen facilities. Double bunks were located around the perimeter of the room, with a small area partitioned off as a private bedroom and workspace for Mawson along the southern wall. A Smith & Wellstood cooking stove and bench were positioned along the northern wall, along with a small darkroom. The dining table was located centrally and provided a strong focal point for social and work activities inside the hut. A storage platform was constructed over the dining table, utilising the four roof support posts.<br>The workshop was attached to the northern side of the living section. It was rectangular in plan, eighteen by sixteen feet, (5.5m x 4.9m) with a hip roof and a five foot wide verandah on the east and west sides.<br>The workshop was fitted out with laboratory benches, a lathe, sewing machine, wireless operator’s bench, DC and AC generators, and engine. The eastern verandah was used as sleeping quarters for the dogs, while the western verandah was largely entrance circulation, although it also contained access to the roof and cellar as well as a latrine.<br>Another change made during the construction of the Main Hut was the attachment of a low-flat roofed ‘Hangar’ to the western side of the living section to provide protection for the air tractor and additional storage. It was constructed from double rows of storage boxes, between which snow was rammed; and a roof of packing case timbers.<br>Artificial lighting was provided by an acetylene generator (supported on the central platform). Heating was provided by the main stove, kept alight continuously by coal and seal blubber. Ventilation was provided by the stove flue, opening doors and a louvred ventilator in the workshop.<br>Natural light was provided by four skylights over the living section and two over the workshop. Access in winter was gained via ice tunnels or a roof trapdoor in the workshop’s western verandah.<br>Magnetograph House<br>In March 1912, the Magnetograph House was erected. This structure contained the magnetograph equipment that was used to measure variations in the South Magnetic Pole. It was difficult to find a suitable location to set up the structure on Cape Denison, as a large flat area was needed for the equipment. As a result, explosives were used to clear a site approximately 400m to the northeast of the Main Hut.<br>The Magnetograph House was purchased prior to departure from the Risby Brothers, Timber Merchants of Hobart, for a price of £16/15/-. It was supplied ready to construct, with an Oregon frame, Baltic pine linings and one external doorset.<br>The construction process was made in two attempts, the initial attempt being demolished by strong winds during its construction. The structure was lined with tarpaper, secured to the frame with battens. Fixings generally were small copper nails (so as not to interfere with the magnetic measurements) and these were taken from the shipwrecked Clyde. Large rocks were located around the hut to provide a wall-like barrier to the weather, allowing the internal temperature to be relatively constant. Sheepskins and hessian were also attached to the roof for this purpose.<br>The structure was rectangular in plan (5.5m x 2m) with a shallow pitched skillion roof and no windows. The entry was constructed as a double porch, with three doorsets, to assist in the maintenance of the constant internal temperature. The external door was a double ‘stable’ ships door taken from the Clyde. A copper ventilator was installed in the roof over the porch for the same reason. The equipment was set into the rock to ensure a level surface.<br>Magnetic measurements were collected from the Magnetograph House on a daily basis, usually by Eric Webb (Chief Magnetician) but also by Edward Bage (Assistant Magnetician).<br>Absolute Magnetic Hut<br>The Absolute Magnetic Hut was used in association with, and as a reference point for, observations made in the Magnetograph House. It was located one hundred and seventy feet (52m) south of Magnetograph House, on a raised rock shelf. The Absolute Magnetic Hut was erected during February 1912, using remnant timber not used in other building efforts.<br>It was six foot square (1.8m x 1.8m) in plan with a skillion roof. It had an Oregon timber frame that was fixed with copper nails and lined with timber boarding. Tarpaper was added internally and fixed with battens for weatherproofing. The structure was anchored to the ground to prevent it from being blown away. The instruments inside the hut were set into the rock and measurements were taken through small sliding doors, without entering the structure.<br>Transit Hut<br>Construction of the Transit Hut, originally known as the Astronomical Observatory, started during May 1913. Its purpose was to take star sights by theodolite to determine Cape Denison’s exact longitude. It was located approximately 30m to the northeast of the Main Hut, on a 900mm-high rock ledge.<br>The Hut was constructed of an Oregon frame (with metal shelf brackets assisting in bracing) and lined externally with packing case timbers. The structure had one door in the northeast corner. Additionally, there was a narrow slot in the roof and upper part of the north and south elevations to assist observations. The structure was clad in sheepskin and canvas.<br>The structure contained a ‘10 inch transit instrument’, given to the expedition by the Government Astronomer. This was positioned on a 225mm, square timber pillar and set into the rock.<br>Life at the Main (Eastern) Base<br>Science and Routine<br>A large range of scientific observations was made at the Main Base during the autumn and winter of 1912, often involving a routine of daily readings. Such meteorological readings included temperature, barometric pressure, humidity, snowfall, and wind speed and direction. The expedition devised their own equipment to measure wind gusts, the ‘puffometer’, and amount of snowdrift. Barometric pressure was recorded inside the Main Hut with a mercury barometer and barograph. Temperature and humidity were recorded in a louvred screen (approximately 10m to the east of the Main Hut) that housed a thermometer, thermograph and hydrograph (a neophoscope stood near the screen). Wind recordings were taken daily from a rocky ridge (Anemometer Hill) 150m east of the Main Hut. Instruments on the ridge included the anemometer, a louvred screen that housed the anemograph, the ‘puffometer’ (that measured gusts but was ineffective in constant hurricane force winds), a snow gauge (a tube that measured snow collected), and a sunshine recorder. (The pole for the ‘puffometer’ was used by BANZARE in 1931 to support the proclamation flag and canister containing the proclamation itself.) An electroscope used in the study of atmospheric electrical disturbance was located at the apex of the living section of the Main Hut. Magnetic readings were taken daily regardless of the conditions.<br>In addition to charting Cape Denison, surveying instruments were used to locate the tide gauge placed in Boat harbour and to provide reference measurements for the magnetic readings using a bench mark carved into the rock near the Main Hut and sighting poles set up to the north, east and west of the Absolute Hut. From the Absolute Hut, Webb took night sightings to a lamp through a hole in a survey post some 40m away. A special astronomical instrument was used in the Transit Hut. A snowdrift gauge was designed and constructed to capture and measure the amount of drift snow in the air. The party also fully described the geology, flora, and fauna of Cape Denison and collected samples for study at the Main Hut and for further research in Australia.<br>Life at Cape Denison also involved daily chores such as collecting ice for fresh water and maintaining and preparing equipment for the sledging journeys planned for spring 1912.<br>AAE Photography<br>Frank Hurley, a New Zealand born photographer working in the picture postcard industry in Sydney, was the official photographer of AAE (although other AAE members also recorded their observations). He carried more that ten still cameras and one cine camera, recording 2,500 images (many of these on glass plates and some in colour) and hundreds of metres of cine film in the first year of AAE (Hurley returned with the Aurora in February 1913). His images are a comprehensive visual record of the Antarctic landscape, the expeditioners, the activities of the expedition and even the sledge-dogs.<br>Wireless Communication<br>The establishment of radio communications and the installation of the necessary equipment was not an easy task. The erection of two radio masts took place between April and September 1912, although these were demolished by wind during October. The reconstructed apparatus successfully sent messages, but was not able to receive them. Two-way communication was re-commenced successfully in February 1913.<br>The Air Tractor<br>An aeroplane, a REP Monoplane from Messrs Vickers & Co, was obtained by Mawson for the expedition. It was hoped that this relatively rare machine would act as much-needed publicity during the preparation for the expedition and, when in Antarctica, would assist with exploration activities. However, the aeroplane was damaged in Adelaide, and was therefore used as an ‘air tractor’ with an aeroplane engine. A mechanism was added to allow the air tractor to haul sledges.<br>In 1912, the Western sledging party took the air tractor on their expedition. However, the engine shut down and the machine was abandoned when the party was only 14km from the Main Hut. Several months later, it appears that the air tractor was retrieved. The only visible evidence of it that now remains on the site is part of the tail recovered recently from ice in the Main Hut.<br>Life at the Western Base<br>Science and Routine on an Ice Block<br>The Western Base party contained a similar range of professional skills as the Main Base. The intention was to replicate a similar range of observations and undertake similar types of sledging journeys to that of the Main Base. The location of the Western Base on an ice shelf, however, probably reduced the extent of observation near the hut itself. Nevertheless, during the year-long stay at the Western Base, a series of magnetic observations was made using an igloo as an observatory. There was also additional scientific interest in the aurora australis (southern lights) which was visible.<br>The Western Base Hut was supplied by Messrs Anthony, Melbourne. It was a timber-framed structure, clad internally and externally with tongue-and-groove Baltic pine boards, with tarpaper and straw insulation. It was a similar design to the living section of the Main Base Hut, with a pyramid roof (supported on queen posts) and skylights and verandahs on three sides of a 6.1m square central room. Tunnels were used for access to the hut, with the addition of a trapdoor to the outside to regulate the air within the space. It was composed of an open room with bunks around the wall, a darkroom, vestibule, and a room for Wild.<br>Sledging Expeditions from the two Bases<br>At the end of winter in 1912, both bases began undertaking sledging trips inland to chart the areas explored and to make scientific observations.<br>Some of these expedition sledges were hauled by dog teams. One attempted to use the air tractor, but most were hauled by the men themselves.<br>Inland Sledging from the Western Base<br>Western Expedition to Gaussberg: This party travelled west, crossing the Helen Glacier and the islands adjacent to Haswell Island. They successfully climbed to the peak of Gaussberg Mountain (370m high) in Kaiser Wilhelm Land. Additionally, they charted large areas of the coastline.<br>Eastern Expedition to the Denman Glacier: This party travelled along the eastern coastline via the Bay of Winds, Delay Point, Redi Glacier, and Cape Gerlache. Despite charting these areas, they were unsuccessful in their main objective of reaching the Denman Glacier. The Western Party was picked up by the Aurora on the 23 February 1913. Following the expedition, Wild reported to Mawson that, “Our joint efforts had been successful in charting and otherwise investigating a length of about 400 miles (650km) of coast in this very interesting region. Inland Sledging from the Main (Eastern) Base Sledging expeditions undertaken from the Main Base from spring 1912 included:<br>Southern Party: The Southern Party was composed of Bage (as the team leader), Webb, and Hurley. The main intention for their expedition was to observe magnetic conditions. In spite of bad weather conditions, they appear to have reached a location within fifty miles (80km) of the South Magnetic Pole.<br>Southern Supporting Party: The Southern Supporting Party was led by Murphy, with Hunter and Lasseron. They journeyed initially with the Southern Party and then returned to Cape Denison.<br>Western Party: The Western Party was led by Bickerton, with Hodgeman and Whetter. The objective of their expedition was to investigate the coastal regions to the west of Cape Denison using the air tractor sledge. The air tractor engine, however, proved inadequate in the low temperatures of Antarctica and was abandoned. As such, the team was only able to reach a point 158 miles (254km) from Cape Denison. However, an important discovery was made on the expedition, with the sighting of the first-known Antarctic meteorite.<br>Near-Eastern Party: The Near-Eastern Party was led by Stillwell with an initial team of Close and Hodgeman and a later team of Close and Lasseron. The main intention for their expedition was to explore and chart the coast from Cape Denison to the Mertz Glacier.<br>Eastern Coastal Party: The Eastern Coastal Party was led by Madigan, with McLean and Correll. The purpose of this expedition was to investigate the coast to the east of the Mertz Glacier. The expedition successfully crossed the Mertz Glacier and continued to traverse the Ninnis Glacier. The party reached Horn Bluff, a large cliff at a distance of two hundred and seventy miles (434km) from the Main Base, and then returned to Cape Denison.<br>Far-Eastern Party: The Far-Eastern Party was to journey overland and investigate the coast beyond the areas reached by the near-Eastern and Eastern Coastal parties. The group, composed of Mawson, Mertz, and Ninnis, together with two dog sledges, set out from Cape Denison on 10 November.<br>On 14 December, after traversing an undulating coastal area with large crevasses, a tragedy occurred. Mertz, who was leading the party, gave a warning signal to Mawson and Ninnis to alert them to a hidden crevasse. Although the crevasse was crossed with care by Mawson and Mertz, Ninnis, along with his sledge (containing food supplies) and dogs, fell through and was killed. His loss was felt greatly as he had been a dedicated member of the expedition team to Antarctica.<br>Following the death of Ninnis, Mawson and Mertz began their three hundred mile (480km) return journey to Cape Denison. They chose to take the shorter inland route (despite the prospect of potentially acquiring seal meat for food on the longer coastal route). The journey was difficult, and the distance able to be covered each day decreased. The dogs died or were killed one by one and their remains were used for food. On 7 January Mertz, who had been ill for some time, died from what was much later diagnosed as vitamin A poisoning from eating dog’s liver.<br>Mawson then made the final 100 mile (160km) journey back to Cape Denison alone. It was a long and difficult journey. Supplies were low, his health was deteriorating, and weather conditions were poor. He arrived back on 8 February, just hours after the departure of the Aurora on its trip to retrieve the Western Base Party and return to Australia. Although the Aurora returned after being contacted by wireless, bad weather prohibited a landing party going ashore. With the risk of ice packs preventing the recovery of the Western Base party, Davis decided to leave Mawson and the six man team that had elected to remain behind to continue the search for him — Bage, Bickerton, Hodgeman, McLean, Jeffryes [relief wireless operator who arrived on the Aurora] and Madigan — for another year in Antarctica.<br>The Second Year<br>Changes to the Main Hut<br>Mawson spent the first few weeks of the second year recuperating from the ordeal of his expedition to the far east. During this time, the rest of the men set out to improve the general living conditions in the Main Hut. The structure was made more windproof by covering the roof in an old sailcloth held down by timber packing case battens nailed to the roof. As the structure was now housing seven rather than eighteen men, changes were made for convenience. Food could be stored inside, the wireless was transferred to the living section of the hut (minimising condensation problems) and new shelves were constructed.<br>During the year, the party continued their study of the geological and biological features of the region and the daily collection of magnetic and meteorological data. A wireless telegraph station was established and communication was largely successful, with several repairs and adjustments made to the equipment throughout the year. Early communications exchanged included the news that Captain Scott and four of his colleagues had died while attempting to reach the South Pole.<br>Memorial Cross and Plaque<br>A Memorial Cross to Ninnis and Mertz was erected on Azimuth Hill, to the northwest of the Main Hut, in November 1913. The structure was built by Bickerton, apparently using remnant timber from the radio masts. The members were 170mm x 170mm, and it stood to a height of 3.4m with a crossbar that spanned 2.2m. The cross bar has been blown off on numerous occasions. In 1931, it was reattached by BANZARE, in 1978 by ANARE, and a third time by the AAP Mawson’s Huts Foundation expedition in 1997/1998.<br>A plaque was added to the cross, with an inscription by Hodgeman that reads: ‘Erected to commemorate the supreme sacrifice made by Lieut. B.E. S. Ninnis, R.F., and Dr. X. Mertz in the cause of science A.A.E. 1913 A.J. Hodgeman’.<br>Return Home<br>In October 1913, news was received that the Aurora would leave Hobart in November on its journey to pick up Mawson and the remaining members of the AAE team. On 23 November, Mawson, Madigan, and Hodgeman travelled to Mount Murchison to retrieve scientific instruments that had been left by earlier expedition parties. However, the journey was unsuccessful due to bad weather and the group returned to the Main Base on 12 December to the sight of the Aurora on the horizon. The following morning, the men were reunited with Captain Davis and the Macquarie Island party and began their return journey. On 5 February, the Aurora headed towards Australia, arriving in Adelaide on 26 February 1914.<br>Analysis of the Expedition<br>The scope and achievements of the AAE are often obscured behind the dominating images of fabric remains at Cape Denison, and in particular the Main Hut itself. It is important to retain in focus the logistical and persuasive skills exhibited by Mawson during its preparations, the vast extent of territory that the expedition covered in establishing three out of the four bases originally proposed, the volume of data collected (including evidence that Cape Denison is the windiest place on earth), and finally, the extent of inland territory traversed and described as part of the sledging expeditions.<br>Not everything went to plan. Some aspects of the expedition required flexibility and innovation (combining expedition bases and huts), and certain aspects did not work as successfully as proposed (the air tractor and the sporadic success of wireless communication, for example). The tragedy of Ninnis and Mertz and the feats of Mawson will always dominate over the methodical story of scientific achievement.<br>The effort that Mawson put into planning the expedition was massive and involved a number of sea voyages around the world to obtain sponsors and material. Mawson exhibited considerable skills to obtain funding from various governments in Australia, including most State Governments, and in obtaining accommodation and scientific huts from building firms in at least four States.<br>The deployment of the expedition itself, including bases at Macquarie Island, the main base at Cape Denison, the Western Base on the Shackleton Ice Shelf, some 2,000km to the west, and the two additional oceanographic voyages of the Aurora were a huge logistical achievement. Although two of the expeditioners were lost during sledging expeditions, the land traversed and mapped was a huge and successful undertaking, with the expeditions returning with valuable scientific and geographic information.<br>The Struggle to Legitimise Antarctic Territory Claims<br>By the end of World War I, Britain, Norway, Germany, France, and the United States had each made some claim to different regions of Antarctica. However, the legitimacy of the claims (often made by privately funded expeditions) was questionable. Despite the fervour of science, heroes, and nationhood, the Heroic Era had not produced a coherent policy of Antarctic ownership and many nations did not recognise the claims of others.<br>Britain was particularly concerned to retain already-claimed regions of Antarctica in the British Empire. Indeed, in 1920 the British Government revealed to the Australian and New Zealand Governments their desire to annex the whole Antarctic continent. Britain was also keen to manage potential land claims by Norwegians, who had expanded their interest in the region in the 1920s.<br>In July 1923, the British Government gave New Zealand control over all land from 160° east of longitude, to 150° west, asserting their ownership of the land in the act of handing over. In response, France issued a decree claiming Adélie Land and Wilkes Land.<br>The British also maintained an active interest and presence in the Antarctic region in the 1920s through a small number of scientific investigations into the whaling industry. These included the ‘Discovery Investigations’, which ran from 1925 to 1931.<br>At the Imperial Conference of Britain and the Commonwealth in 1926, it was resolved to annex, in the name of the British Empire, portions of the Antarctic Continent. It was this resolution that gave rise to BANZARE and provided additional historic significance to Mawson’s Huts and Cape Denison.<br>The British, Australian and New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition (BANZARE), 1929–1931<br>The Expedition<br>In July 1927, the Australian National Research Council formed an Antarctic Committee, which decided that an Australian Expedition, with Sir Douglas Mawson as leader, should be planned as a matter of urgency. The expedition was to investigate the entire coast of the territory over which Britain claimed sovereignty. The British government made the vessel the Discovery (used by Scott on his 1901 expedition) available to the expedition and, with substantial financial assistance from the New Zealand government, the expedition was renamed the ‘British, Australian and New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition’ (BANZARE).<br>The role of Sir Douglas Mawson in organising and planning the expedition tends to be underplayed by the official announcements of the ‘Commonwealth Expedition’. Mawson saw it as ‘Commonwealth-backed’ rather than a ‘Commonwealth Expedition’ and was fundamental in gathering private funds that were crucial to the expedition (as he had done so extensively and on his own, for the AAE).<br>BANZARE was political in its ambitions in the highest degree. Its primary aim was to claim the land covered by the AAE, together with any additional lands possible. The second aim was economic, involving continued investigations into whaling and sealing. The third aim was scientific, including coastal and hydrographic survey; meteorology; and other science, if circumstances permitted.<br>The expedition was conducted over the two Antarctic summers of 1929–30 and 1930–31, and was conducted almost totally on-board ship. Five land proclamations were made, including one at Cape Denison, the AAE main base. Extensive marine surveys and surveys of Antarctic coastline were completed, although the scientific expeditions were impeded by disagreements between Mawson and both his captains over concerns for the safety of ship and crew. (John King Davis, from the AAE expedition, was the captain on the first voyage.)<br>BANZARE and Mawson’s Huts Historic Site<br>In January 1931, on the second BANZARE voyage, the expeditioners visited the Cape Denison site to claim formal possession of King George V Land. The report of the expedition recorded the event thus, “At noon on 5 January the flag was hoisted on a rocky point overlooking the bay. In a casket at the foot of the pole a proclamation was deposited claiming formal possession of King George V Land defined as that section of the Antarctic coast-line between the 142nd and 160th degrees of longitude and between latitude 66 degrees south and the South Pole.”<br>The site had not been visited since the remainder of the AAE left Cape Denison in 1913. During the visit, five members of that expedition, including Mawson, spent a night ashore on 5–6 January 1931. A series of photographs were taken, including some of the interior of the Main Hut showing some pedestals of ice in the living and workshop huts, but generally showed the Hut to be free of ice.<br>A small timber plaque and proclamation, attached to the mast of the AAE puffometer station on Anemometer Hill, are the only ‘formal’ remains of the BANZARE visit.<br>The Significance of BANZARE<br>In discussions of Mawson’s life and the collection of his artefacts, the AAE and BANZARE are often treated with equal emphasis and importance. However, in relation to Cape Denison and the huts themselves, the historical importance of BANZARE (being related to a single historical event of the formal possession of King George V Land) is not nearly equal to the importance of the site’s association with the AAE and its members, who built, lived in and worked there for two years. The significance of BANZARE in relation to Cape Denison and the AAE can be summarised as follows:<br>- that it certified the land claim of King George V Land that Mawson had made during the AAE;<br>- a plaque and proclamation were left on-site, now known as Proclamation Hill;<br>- an assessment of the condition of the Hut was made and photographs made; and<br>- the expedition further compounded Mawson’s legendary status, with which the Main Hut is significantly associated.<br>In 1933, the British Government granted Australia all the territory that it now administers, amounting to forty-two per cent of the continent. Douglas Mawson was instrumental in pushing for Australian control over the area. The AAE and BANZARE were thus clearly instrumental in establishing Australia’s important role in Antarctic land management.<br>Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions (ANARE), 1947–Present<br>Following BANZARE, Australia maintained an active interest in Antarctica. In 1947, the Australian Government established the Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions (ANARE). Sir Douglas Mawson and Captain Davis retained their interest, and were members on the Planning Committee, established in 1947, to advise the Government of Antarctic policy.<br>Three expeditions were organised in 1947, two of which successfully established ANARE research stations on Heard and Macquarie Islands. Another sought to find an appropriate base for a permanent station on the Antarctic continent, in King George V Land, the territory of the AAE. The search was hampered, however, and it was later decided (on advice from Sir Douglas Mawson, among other scientists) to establish the continental base in Mac.Robertson Land. This base, Mawson Station (established in 1954), continues to operate today, although a number of the original buildings have been removed.<br>Subsequently, ANARE established Davis and Casey Stations in Antarctica and these, together with a base on Macquarie Island, are supplied by ships from Hobart. ANARE is administered by the Australian Antarctic Division (AAD) at Kingston, south of Hobart.<br>The Antarctic Treaty, 1961<br>In the mid-1950s, the several nations with interests in Antarctica began to pool their resources and develop an international Antarctic community that was finally forged in the Antarctic Treaty of 1961. By 1955, Britain, Chile, and Argentina had established a number of stations on the Graham Land peninsula on the western coast of Antarctica. In 1956, eleven nations joined forces and expended millions of pounds of funding to establish forty stations in Antarctica. Antarctica was to be the major focus of the International Geophysical Year in 1957–58. The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) was established to continue scientific research programs, and the basis of the Antarctic Treaty was developed.<br>In 1961, the Antarctic Treaty came into force, established agreed territorial divisions, and suspended any new claims (during the currency of the Treaty). The Treaty also reserved Antarctica as a continent of peace and science. All non-indigenous animals have been removed (the last huskies were removed in February 1994). In December 1994, the Southern Whale Sanctuary was established, putting an end to the prospect of commercial whaling. Australia is an Original Signatory to the Treaty and is committed to the environmental protection provisions agreed under the Treaty system.<br>A total of forty-five countries have become Parties to the Antarctic Treaty. Of these, seven claim territory in Antarctica (claimants), twelve are Original Signatories and twenty-seven are Consultative Parties.<br>In addition to the conservation of the natural environment of Antarctica, the Antarctic Treaty also has provisions for the conservation of historic sites and monuments. In 1991, the Madrid Protocol, relating to the protection of Antarctica’s environment, was adopted by the Antarctic Treaty Parties. Annex 5 provides for the designation of Specially Protected Areas. Article 8 states that listed historic monuments and sites shall not be ‘damaged, removed, or destroyed’. Mawson’s Hut and the Memorial Cross are identified as Items 13 and 12 on the list of Historic Sites and Monuments.<br>Summary of the Mawson’s Huts Historic Site 1931–1970<br>After BANZARE, the next visits to the site were not until the 1950s. At least four French parties visited the site between 1950 and 1959. (The French operated a research station at Port Martin, not far to the west, from 1949 to 1953, and established Dumont d’Urville Station nearby in 1956.) An ANARE party visited the site in 1962, and reported the Main Hut as being full of ice. Four visits by NZ, USA and French parties occurred during the 1960s, and four ANARE visits took place in the early and mid-1970s.<br>Significantly, the expeditions that visited the site in this period were scientific, and came to the region to study the area. They are distinct from the teams that travelled to Cape Denison to conserve the AAE huts. Occupation debris from some of these visits, such as logbooks, army ration tins and alcohol bottles, remain on-site, chiefly inside the Magnetograph House, which was used for accommodation.<br>Conservation of Mawson’s Huts<br>Mawson’s Huts and Mawson’s Huts Historic Site are one of only six complexes of the Heroic Era to survive largely intact. The complex includes four timber buildings, two intact and two as standing ruins. These are the Main Hut with living section, workshop and verandahs (intact), the Magnetograph House (intact), Absolute Magnetic Hut (standing ruin with no roof), and Transit Hut (standing ruin with no roof). Mawson’s Huts Historic Site also includes wireless masts (ruins), survey markers and memorials.<br>Thousands of artefacts have been recorded at Cape Denison over the last decade, and these are largely in a reasonable condition. A large amount of undocumented stores, equipment, animal food caches and AAE artefacts remain in concentration around the Main Hut and across the whole of Cape Denison.<br>The greatest single long-term threat to the building structures on Cape Denison is from abrasion from wind-driven snow and ice, known as corrasion, which wears down the surface of softer fabrics such as timber. Since its construction, the edges and corners of the roof cladding boards on the two sections of the Main Hut have weathered at a rate of approximately 1mm every ten years. The more protected central areas of the living section have weathered more slowly, at a rate of 1mm every 26 to 46 years.<br>Efforts to conserve Mawson’s Huts began in the 1970s and reflect a growing awareness of the significance of the site, and coincided with the growth of the heritage conservation movement and related professions. This recognition was paralleled by initial reconnaissance and some work by ANARE in the 1970s. Early work at the site included site investigations to determine the condition of the huts, recording of the site, structures and artefacts and some stabilisation work. In 1978 ice was removed from the workshop interior and the roof was patch repaired to reduce snow and meltwater ingress. Further work was completed by the Project Blizzard teams of 1984/85 and 1985/86, largely involving the recording of the site and structures and the stabilisation of the internal platform of the Main Hut. Further investigations were conducted in 1996/97, which led to the conservation program carried out by the 1997/98 expedition. These works included the restoration and reconstruction of the Main Hut, the Magnetograph House, the Absolute Magnetic Hut, Transit Hut, and Memorial Cross.<br>The 2000/01 expedition continued the conservation works and documentation which had begun with the 1997/98 expedition. Some of the work included the removal of snow and ice from inside the workshop, the initial investigations of the sub-floor conditions, and the removal of post-BANZARE artefacts. The 2002/03 Expedition team removed snow and ice inside the workshop to approximately 1m below the eaves on the southern wall and halfway down the east and west walls. In the Main Hut, snow and ice were removed in areas where it threatened the structural integrity of the bunks.<br>Antarctic Specially Managed Area Proposal<br>At the 2003 Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Australia proposed the designation of the whole of Cape Denison as a Historic Site under the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty. Australia also proposed that the site be designated as an Antarctic Specially Managed Area (ASMA), including a Visual Protection Zone (VPZ) over the valley containing the historic AAE huts in order to enhance the area’s visual catchment and ‘sense of place’.<br>Australia is also seeking to have the AAE huts afforded more comprehensive protection with their designation as an Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA), embedded within the Cape Denison ASMA. These conditions will assist in minimising the impacts of visitation and related activities on the huts, thereby preserving the rich source of research material they present for study and interpretation.<br>If agreed, the Cape Denison ASMA will be one of the first ASMAs to ever be formally submitted by an Antarctic Treaty nation to an Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting. Once approved, the protected areas are designated for an indefinite period.<br> <br>Condition and Integrity<br>Mawson's Huts and Historic Site are one of only six complexes of the Heroic Era to survive largely intact. The complex comprises four timber buildings (two intact and two as standing ruins), wireless masts (ruins), survey markers and memorials. Thousands of artefacts have been recorded at Cape Denison over the last decade, and these are largely in a reasonable condition. A large amount of undocumented stores, equipment, animal food caches and AAE artifacts remain in concentration around the Main Hut and across the whole of Cape Denison.<br>The Main Hut and the Magnetograph House have intact structures and cladding. The Transit Hut and Absolute Magnetic Hut have lost significant amounts of cladding, but the remaining framing and cladding have been stabilised so that they can be conserved as standing ruins. All the huts were stabilised during the 1998 and 2000 works expeditions.<br>Corrasion to the roof cladding of the Main Hut workshop and the Magnetograph Hut was stabilised by over-cladding these roofs in 1998. In order to reduce the snow and meltwater ingress to the Main Hut living area, the ridge caps were sealed, the skylight flashings were repaired and battens were used to seal gaps in the roof cladding during the 2002/03 Expedition.<br>All timbers in the Main Hut have bolted connections, which were reported as only showing minor surface corrosion in the 1997/98 expedition report. Despite this, a section collar tie and platform structure of the Main Hut living are had failed due to internal snow and ice load. Restoration/reconstruction was undertaken in 1998. Snow and ice loads have also led to failure of the collar ties that supported the platform and five of the eight rafters were split or broken at the joint with the collar ties. During the 2002/03 expedition, three rafters of the workshop roof were repaired. New collar ties were utilised, but the original u-bolts and packing blocks were reinstated.<br>The cross arm to the Memorial Cross has been blown off on numerous occasions. It was reattached in 1931 by BANZARE, in 1978 by ANARE and a third time by the AAP Mawsons Huts Foundation expedition in 1997/1998. The 2000 expedition reported the 1998 works to be in good condition.<br> <br>Location<br>About 130ha, located at Cape Denison, Commonwealth Bay, King George V Land, Australian Antarctic Territory, being an area bounded by a line commencing at the intersection of the coastline and Latitude 67° 00’ 47” S at Land’s End (approximate location 67° 00’ 47” S 142° 39’ 28” E), then northerly via the Low Water Mark (LWM) to the intersection of the coastline with Latitude 67° 00’ 21” S (approximate location 67° 00’ 21” S 142° 39’ 18” E), then north easterly via a straight line to the intersection of the eastern coastline of Boat Harbour with Latitude 67° 00’ 20” S (approximate location 67° 00’ 20” S 142° 39’ 27” E), then northerly and south easterly via the LWM to its intersection with Latitude 67° 00’ 47” S at John O’Groats (approximate location 67° 00’ 47” S 142° 41’ 27” E), then westerly via a straight line to the point of commencement.<br> <br>Bibliography<br>The following sources provide either the best general or detailed references for an overview of the Australian Antarctic Expedition. Mawson’s Antarctic Diaries and The Home of the Blizzard provide a comparative public and private account of the expeditions by Mawson himself. The published twenty-two volume set of official Australian Antarctic Expedition scientific reports give an insight into the scale of the undertaking.<br>Conservation reports prepared by Allom et al, Blunt, and Pearson provide analysis of the physical evidence and include contextual discussion about Heroic Era Huts. The two Godden Mackay reports describe recent work on and current condition of the site. Martin provides a very good contextual background to the heritage and history of Antarctica. Wheeler and Ferguson describe the scope of AAE and BANZARE collections in Australia.<br>Allom Lovell Marquis Kyle Architects 1988, Mawson’s Huts, Antarctica: Statement of Significance. Report prepared for the Department of Science, August 1988.<br>Australian Antarctic Expedition 1911–1914, Scientific Reports 1929, Series A, Geography, Geology and Oceanography; Series B, Meteorology and Series C, Zoology and Botany.<br>Australian Antarctic Magazine, Issue 5 Winter 2003, Conserving our connections: the 2002-03 Mawson’s Huts Expedition, http://www.antdiv.gov.au/default.asp?casid=11982 [accessed 22 June 2004]<br>Ayeres, Philip 1999, Mawson: A Life, Melbourne University Press, Carlton South, Victoria.<br>Blunt, W 1991, Mawson’s Huts Antarctica, Vols 1, 2 & 3, Thesis, Master of the Built Environment, University of New South Wales.<br>Cultural Heritage in the Arctic and Antarctic Regions 2004, Ed. Barr, S. and Chaplin, P., ICOMOS International Polar Heritage Committee<br>Godden Mackay Logan 2001, Mawson’s Huts Historic Site: Cape Denison Commonwealth Bay Antarctica Conservation Management Plan 2001, Sydney, Australia<br>Jacka, Fred and Eleanor Jacka (eds) 1988, Mawson’s Antarctic Diaries, Allen & Unwin, Sydney.<br>Martin, Stephen 1996, A History of Antarctica, State Library of New South Wales Press, Sydney.<br>Mawson, Sir Douglas 1930 (1996), The Home of the Blizzard: the Story of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition, 1911–1914, facsimile edition (first published as two volumes in 1915, and abridged in 1930), Wakefield Press, South Australia.<br>Pearson, Michael 1993, Mawson’s Huts Historic Site Conservation Plan. Prepared for Mawson’s Huts Conservation Committee, October 1993.<br> General Antarctic Sources History/General Antarctic<br>Alexander, Caroline 1997, The Endurance: Shackleton’s Legendary Antarctic Expedition, Bloomsbury, London.<br>Australian Parliament, House of Representatives Standing Committee on Environment, Recreation & the Arts 1989, Tourism in Antarctica, Canberra, ACT.<br>Bickell, Leonard, This Accursed Land, ABC audio tape.<br>Broadbent, N 1992, ‘Reclaiming US Antarctic History: the Restoration of East Base, Stonington Island’, Antarctic Journal of the United States, XXVII, 2: 14–17.<br>Davis, PB 1995, ‘Antarctic Visitor Behaviour: are guidelines enough?’, Polar Record 31, 177: 327–334.<br>Fogg, GE 1992, A History of Antarctic Science, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.<br>Foreign & Commonwealth Office London (ed), List of Protected Areas in Antarctica.<br>Martin, Stephen 1996, A History of Antarctica, State Library of New South Wales Press, Sydney.<br>Pearson, Michael 1992, ‘Expedition Huts in Antarctica: 1899–1917’, Polar Record 28, 167: 261–276.<br> <br>Australia<br>Handmer, John and Wilder, Martin (eds) 1993, Towards a Conservation Plan for the Australian Antarctic Territory, The 1993 Fenner Conference on the Environment, Australian National University Centre for Resource and Environmental Studies, Canberra.<br>Law, Phillip and John Bechervaise 1957, ANARE: Australia's Antarctic Outposts, Oxford University Press, Melbourne.<br>Murray-Smith, Stephen 1988, Sitting on Penguins: People and Politics in Australian Antarctica, Hutchinson Australia, Surry Hills, NSW.<br> <br>New Zealand<br>Antarctic Heritage Trust 1997, Heritage Management Plan for the Historic Sites of the Ross Sea Region, Antarctic Heritage Trust, Wellington, NZ.<br>Greenfield, LG 1981, ‘Pathogenic Microbes in Antarctica’, NZ Antarctic Record, 33:38.<br>Greenfield, LG 1982, ‘Thermophilic Microbes in Shackleton’s Pony Fodder, Cape Royds’, NZ Antarctic Record, 41: 21–22.<br>Harrowfield, DL 1984, ‘The Effects of Wind on Some Historic Antarctic Huts’, Journal of Polar Studies, Summer, 12470–486.<br>Harrowfield, DL 1995, Icy Heritage: Historic Sites of the Ross Sea Region, Antarctic Heritage Trust, Christchurch NZ.<br>Harrowfield, DL 1985, ‘Snow accumulation at Captain RF Scott’s hut, Cape Evans, Ross Island’, NZ Antarctic Record, 8, 2: 17–19.<br>Harrowfield, DL 1996, The role of the wind in the destruction of an historic hut at Cape Adare in Antarctica.<br>Higham, Tim (ed) 1991, New Zealand’s Subantarctic Islands: a guidebook, Department of Conservation, Wellington, NZ.<br>Turner, GA 1979, A Strategy for the Conservation and Management of the Historic Sites in Ross Dependency Antarctica, Department of Lands and Survey, Wellington, NZ.<br> AAE and BANZARE Original Material Expedition Accounts by AAE Member<br>Australian Antarctic Expedition Scientific Reports:<br>Mawson, Douglas, Brief Narrative and Reference Physiological and Glaciological Features. Geography Discoveries and Cartography, Series A, Vol I.<br>Doodson, AT, Tidal Observations, Series A, Vol II, Part 2.<br>Webb, Eric N, Field Survey and Reduction of the Magnetograph Curves, Series B, Vol I, Part 1.<br>Ainsworth et al, The Record of the Macquarie Island Station, Series B Vol III.<br>Mawson, Douglas, [Meteorology] Records of the Queen Mary Land Station, Series B Vol IV Parts 1, 2 & 3.<br>Jacka, Fred and Eleanor Jacka (eds), Mawson’s Antarctic Diaries, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1988.<br>Laseron, Charles F 1957, South with Mawson: Reminiscences of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition, 1911–14, Angus & Robertson, Sydney.<br>Fletcher, Harold 1984, Antarctic Days With Mawson: A personal account of the British, Australian and New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition of 1929–31, Angus and Robertson, London.<br>Mawson, Sir Douglas 1930 (1996), The Home of the Blizzard: the Story of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition, 1911–1914, facsimile edition (first published as two volumes in 1915, and abridged in 1930), Wakefield Press, South Australia.<br>The Mitchell Library, State Library of New South Wales, holds a large amount of original material relating to the AAE<br>State Library of New South Wales (ed), AAE administrative history and index to manuscript holdings.<br> <br>Collections<br>Wheeler, Barbara 1993, The Meanings of Sir Douglas Mawson’s Antarctic Object Collections, Honours Thesis, Bachelor Applied Science, University of Canberra.<br>Ferguson, Richard G 1995, Antarctic Artefacts: The Mawson Collection, Mawson Graduate Centre for Environmental Studies, Adelaide.<br>Ferguson, Richard G, 1995, Annotated Catalogue of Artefacts in the Mawson Collection, University of Adelaide, Adelaide.<br> General Bright Sparcs — Biographical entry, http://www.asap.unimelb.edu.au/ bsparcs.<br>Moyes, John Layton 1994, Antarctica: ice, aloneness, ice, J Moyes, West Gosford, NSW.<br>University of Adelaide and the South Australian Museum 1996, Douglas Mawson: Explorer/Scientist, CD Rom.<br>Watson, Moira 1997, The Spy who Loved Children: the Enigma of Herbert Dyce Murphy 1879 –1971, Melbourne University Press, Carlton, Victoria.<br> Mawson’s Huts Conservation Planning and Site Work ANARE/AAD (1974 to present)<br>Allom Lovell Marquis Kyle Architects 1988, Mawson’s Huts, Antarctica: Statement of Significance. Report prepared for the Department of Science, August 1988.<br>Hayman, Simon, Janet Hughes & Estelle Lazer 1998, Report to the Australian Heritage Commission on NEGP Grant: Deterioration Monitoring and Tourism Management at Cape Denison (Mawson’s Huts), Australian Antarctic Territory.<br>Ledingham, Rod et al 1978, Commonwealth Bay Report, Antarctic Division Technical Memo No. 69, Australia: Department of Science, Antarctic Division.<br>Marshall, Duncan 1987, Mawson’s Huts–Commonwealth Bay: Structural and Materials Performance. Report to Antarctic Historic Sites and Monuments Advisory Committee, Department of Housing & Construction, Canberra.<br>Pearson, Michael 1993, Mawson’s Huts Historic Site Conservation Plan. Prepared for the Mawson’s Huts Conservation Committee (MHCC) and the Australian Antarctic Division (AAD).<br>Ledingham, R et al 1978, Commonwealth Report, Australian Antarctic Division Technical Memo No. 69.<br>Lugg, DG & AE Humphreys 1974, Report on a visit to Cape Denison, Australian Antarctic Division Technical Memo No. 24.<br>Nisbet, JS 1978, Report on a visit to Cape Denison, Australian Antarctic Division Technical Memo No. 34.<br>Nisbet, JS 1978, Proposed Restoration of Mawson’s Hut Commonwealth Bay – Year 2, Antarctic Division Technical Memorandum No. 83.<br>Smith, L 1978, Report on a visit to Mawson’s Hut, Cape Denison, Commonwealth Bay, Australian Antarctic Division Technical Memo No. 35.<br> <br>Project Blizzard (1984–1986)<br>Blunt, W 1991, Mawson’s Huts Antarctica, Vols 1, 2 & 3, Thesis, Master of the Built Environment, University of New South Wales.<br>Blunt, William (ed) 1985, Project Blizzard 1984–1985 Expedition, Preliminary Report and Recommendations.<br>Blunt, William and Thornton, Margaret (eds) 1985, Mawson’s Huts Interim Conservation Report, Volume Four, Photographic Survey Main Hut.<br>Chester, Jonathon 1986, Going to Extremes: Project Blizzard and Australia's Antarctic Heritage, Double Bay, Sydney.<br>Hughes, Janet (compiler) 1986, Mawson’s Huts Interim Conservation Report, Volume 6, Materials Conservation Issues.<br>Lazer, Estelle 1985, Mawson’s Huts Interim Conservation Report, Volume Five (Part A), Archaeological Report.<br>McGowan, Angela 1987, ‘Archaeology from the Ice: Excavation Methods in a Frozen Hut’, Australian Historical Archaeology, 5:49–53.<br>McGowan, Angela (compiler) 1986, Mawson’s Huts Interim Conservation Report, Volume 5 (Part B), Archaeological Report 1985/86.<br>Project Blizzard 1984–85: The Conservation of Sir Douglas Mawson’s Hut, Commonwealth Bay, Antarctica: A Conservation Plan. Prepared by Margaret Thornton and William Blunt for the Australian Heritage Commission.<br> <br>AAP Mawson’s Huts Foundation (1996 to present)<br>AAP Mawson’s Huts Foundation Conservation Program 1997–98, Initial Environmental Evaluation.<br>Easther, Rob (Project Manager) 1998, Reports on the AAP Mawson’s Huts Foundation Expedition to Cape Denison, December 1997–February 1998.<br>Grant, Alan 1998, AAP Mawson’s Huts Expedition 1997/98, Field Leader's Report.<br>McGregor, Alasdair 1998, Mawson’s Huts: an Antarctic Expedition Journal, Hale & Iremonger, Sydney.<br>Mawson’s Huts Foundation 1998, video recording, AAP, London.<br>Mawson’ s Huts Foundation 1997, video recording, AAP, London.<br>Mawson’s Huts Historic Site, Commonwealth Bay, Antarctica, 1997 Conservation Works Report. Prepared for AAP Mawson’s Huts Foundation by Godden Mackay Heritage Consultants.<br>Media Monitors 1998, Press Clippings: AAP Mawson’s Huts Foundation Expedition to Cape Denison, Antarctica, 10 December 1997 — 20 December 1998.<br>Orford, Gavan 1997, Mawson’s Huts, Cape Denison, Antarctica, Video Recording, AAP Information Services.<br>Godden Mackay Heritage Consultants, 1997, Preliminary Conservation Report, Mawson’s Huts Historic Site, Commonwealth Bay, Antarctica. Prepared for AAP Mawson’s Huts Foundation.<br> <br>Other Useful Sources<br>Ambrose, WR 1990, Application of Freeze-drying to Archaeological Wood, in Roger M Rowell & R James Barbour (eds), Archaeological Wood: Properties, Chemistry and Preservation, American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, pp 235–261.<br>Australian Dictionary of Biography, 14 vols 1996, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne.<br>Fagan, Brian 1995, People of the Earth: An Introduction to World Prehistory, 8th ed, Harper Collins, New York.<br>Geo Hudson & Son Ltd 1919, Australian Bungalows, Geo Hudson & Son Ltd, Redfern, NSW.<br>Hoffman, Peter (ed) 1993, Proceedings of the 5th ICOM Group on Wet Organic Archaeological Materials Conference, Portland, Maine.<br>Hughes, Janet 1991 ‘Conservation in Context: Artefact and Place’, Historic Environment VII: 1 & 2, 19–24.<br>New Zealanders Visit Mawson’s Old Base, Antarctic, 1996 232:58–59.<br>Parish, Thomas R 1981, ‘The Katabatic Winds of Cape Denison and Port Martin’, Polar Record 20, 129: 525–532<br>Voyage 1395: World of Penguins – Mawson’s Antarctica, December 27 – January 21, 1997, Southern Heritage Expeditions, Wellington, New Zealand.<br> <br>Papers from AAP Mawson’s Huts Foundation Cape Denison Conservation Management Plan Seminar, The AAP Centre George Street Sydney, October 18–19, 1998.<br>Antarctic Heritage Trust, New Zealand 1998, Management of Collections: metal objects.<br>Ambrose, Wallace R 1998, The Wilkes Site: hut-remediation project, Antarctica.<br>Hughes, Janet 1998, Issues concerning ice removal.<br>Jackson, Andrew 1998, Role of the Australian Antarctic Division. Marshall, Duncan 1998, Site Management and Access, including tourism. Pearson, Michael 1998, Issues: fabric management.<br>Young, Linda 1998, Mawson Collections.<br>Workshop 1: Ice removal, prevention of snow ingress.<br>Workshop 2: Site management and off-site components.
Appendix C: Commonwealth Heritage Listing
Category
Detail
Place ID
105435
Mawsons Huts Historic Site
Mawsons Huts Historic Site, Dumont D'Urville Station, EXT, Australia
List
Commonwealth Heritage List
Class
Historic
Legal Status
Listed place (22/06/2004)
Place File No
9/01/002/0008
Source: Australian Heritage Database
Summary Statement of Significance<br>Mawson's Huts Historic Site is a place of great historical and social significance. The site is significant as the first base for scientific and geographical discovery in Antarctica by Australians. The Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-1914 (AAE) was the first large-scale scientific inquiry after Federation. Mawson's Huts is a complex historical site, a remnant of the "Heroic Era" of exploration in Antarctica. The expedition survived the isolation and the severe climate and the site illustrates this through its form and setting. The site is, for Australia, of political significance as the location for what eventually became sovereignty claims. The site fabric demonstrates the intense period of AAE occupation between 1912-13. The external relationship of buildings and artefacts illustrates the way the AAE organised their activities spatially. (Criterion A.4)<br>The site is significant as one of only nine wintering expedition bases built in Antarctica during the "Heroic Era" of exploration, of which only six now survive. This base is the least disturbed by human activities making it one of the most diverse and unique. The site is a fundamental part of the history of Antarctic exploration and of the two bases constructed by Australians during this period it is the only surviving base. The overall site with its range of buildings, scientific equipment and artefacts demonstrates life in Antarctica during this period. (Criterion B.2)<br>The site is significant for its association with Sir Douglas Mawson and the members of the AAE for whom the site was a base and home for two years. It is a memorial to the members who lost their lives, and also to the contribution that Mawson and his team made to Antarctic science and geography. (Criterion H.1)<br>The scientific community, the Antarctic veterans community and the larger Australian community view Mawson's Huts as a symbol of the achievements of the AAE and Mawson himself. The AAE has become an integral part of Australia's exploration history and has gained a mythic quality. The science and veterans community value the AAE for its role in Antarctic scientific research and for the way it became a model for further exploration in the Antarctic. (Criterion G.1)<br>The Mawson's Huts Historic Site is of aesthetic value. The location of the huts on a small rocky peninsula surrounded by a vast area of ice and sea evokes a powerful sense of isolation. Important visual elements also include the setting of the AAE hut structures and memorial cross and the British and New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition (BANZARE) Proclamation Pole. The building form of the huts themselves shows the functional and efficient planning that was undertaken in response to the site position and the elements. The weathering of the huts and decay of the remains gives a feeling of time elapsed and relates to the exposure to the elements. (Criterion E.1)<br>The Mawson's Huts Historic Site is an area of substantial archaeological deposit and archaeological potential. The site has already yielded archaeological evidence providing insight into the living conditions experienced by the AAE. The interiors of the huts are important in that they contain evidence of the domestic and work life of the AAE. The site still retains a great deal of physical evidence which can be interpreted by archaeological study. (Criterion C.2)<br>The Huts are of technical significance being excellent examples of the innovation and technology used to combat the extreme conditions of the Antarctic and provide functional living and working quarters. The huts were designed by Douglas Mawson and pre-fabricated in Australia before the expedition. Mawson developed the huts using his own knowledge and experience. The designs incorporated the need for wind resistance, simplicity, portability and resistance to the cold.<br>Mawson's Huts are significant as evidence of Mawson's design theory that included modifying Australian building form for Antarctic conditions. Mawson's Huts were functionally designed using theory and experience. The use of verandahs and hipped roofs which are design features common to Australia were adapted to provide strength and insulation. (Criterion F.1)<br>Australian Historic Themes: 3.03 Surveying the continent; 3.16 Struggling with remoteness and hardship; 5.01 Working in harsh conditions; 8.10.05 Advancing knowledge in science and technology; 8.11 Making Australian folklore.<br> <br>Official Values<br>Criterion A: Processes<br>Mawson's Huts Historic Site is a place of great historical and social significance. The site is significant as the first base for scientific and geographical discovery in Antarctica by Australians. The Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-1914 (AAE) was the first large-scale scientific inquiry after Federation. Mawson's Huts is a complex historical site, a remnant of the "Heroic Era" of exploration in Antarctica. The expedition survived the isolation and the severe climate and the site illustrates this through its form and setting. The site is, for Australia, of political significance as the location for what eventually became sovereignty claims. The site fabric demonstrates the intense period of AAE occupation between 1912-13. The external relationship of buildings and artefacts illustrates the way the AAE organised their activities spatially.<br>Attributes<br>All of the historic fabric including its form, layout, setting, external relationship of buildings, and associated artifacts.<br>Criterion B: Rarity<br>The site is significant as one of only nine wintering expedition bases built in Antarctica during the "Heroic Era" of exploration, of which only six now survive. This base is the least disturbed by human activities making it one of the most diverse and unique. The site is a fundamental part of the history of Antarctic exploration and of the two bases constructed by Australians during this period it is the only surviving base. The overall site with its range of buildings, scientific equipment and artefacts demonstrates life in Antarctica during this period.<br>Attributes<br>The integrity of the overall site with its range of buildings, scientific equipment and artefacts.<br>Criterion C: Research<br>The Mawson's Huts Historic Site is an area of substantial archaeological deposit and archaeological potential. The site has already yielded archaeological evidence providing insight into the living conditions experienced by the AAE. The interiors of the huts are important in that they contain evidence of the domestic and work life of the AAE. The site still retains a great deal of physical evidence which can be interpreted by archaeological study.<br> <br>Attributes<br>The whole site including archaeological deposits external to the huts, and associated artefacts.<br>Criterion E: Aesthetic characteristics<br>The Mawson's Huts Historic Site is of aesthetic value. The location of the huts on a small rocky peninsula surrounded by a vast area of ice and sea evokes a powerful sense of isolation. Important visual elements also include the setting of the AAE hut structures and memorial cross and the British and New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition (BANZARE) Proclamation Pole. The building form of the huts themselves shows the functional and efficient planning that was undertaken in response to the site position and the elements. The weathering of the huts and decay of the remains gives a feeling of time elapsed and relates to the exposure to the elements.<br>Attributes<br>The location and setting of the huts, memorial cross and Proclamation Pole, the form of the huts and their weathered patina.<br>Criterion F: Technical achievement<br>The Huts are of technical significance being excellent examples of the innovation and technology used to combat the extreme conditions of the Antarctic and provide functional living and working quarters. The huts were designed by Douglas Mawson and pre-fabricated in Australia before the expedition. Mawson developed the huts using his own knowledge and experience. The designs incorporated the need for wind resistance, simplicity, portability and resistance to the cold.<br>Mawson's Huts are significant as evidence of Mawson's design theory that included modifying Australian building form for Antarctic conditions. Mawson's Huts were functionally designed using theory and experience. The use of verandahs and hipped roofs which are design features common to Australia were adapted to provide strength and insulation.<br>Attributes<br>All aspects of the huts including their manufacture, design, form, fabric, detail, structure and thermal properties.<br>Criterion G: Social value<br>The scientific community, the Antarctic veterans community and the larger Australian community view Mawson's Huts as a symbol of the achievements of the AAE and Mawson himself. The AAE has become an integral part of Australia's exploration history and has gained a mythic quality. The science and veterans community value the AAE for its role in Antarctic scientific research and for the way it became a model for further exploration in the Antarctic.<br>Attributes<br>All of the historic fabric including form, layout, setting, external relationship of buildings, and associated artifacts.<br>Criterion H: Significant people<br>The site is significant for its association with Sir Douglas Mawson and the members of the AAE for whom the site was a base and home for two years. It is a memorial to the members who lost their lives, and also to the contribution that Mawson and his team made to Antarctic science and geography.<br>Attributes<br>All of the historic fabric including its form, layout, setting, external relationship of buildings, and associated artifacts.<br> <br>Description<br>History<br>The late nineteenth century saw the beginning of the "Heroic Era" of Antarctic exploration. Interest in continental exploration and scientific study was renewed by European nationalism. During 1897 to 1917 teams from Britain, Norway, Germany, France, Belgium, Australia, New Zealand, Scotland and Japan carried out 15 scientific expeditions. The purpose of these expeditions was to explore unclaimed land and collect magnetic, meteorological, geological and biological data.<br>For the first time the expedition teams built shelters and lived on the continent for extended periods of time. During this era a total of nine pre-fabricated huts were built with six still surviving today - Borchgrevink's hut, Cape Adare; Scott's Discovery hut, Ross Island; Shackleton's Cape Royd hut, Ross Island; Scott's Cape Evans hut, Ross Island; Nordenskjold's hut, Snow Hill; and Mawson's Huts, Commonwealth Bay.<br>(Sir) Douglas Mawson participated in his first Antarctic Expedition in 1907 as part of Ernest Shackleton's British Antarctic Expedition. He was part of a three-man team that reached the South Magnetic Pole and climbed the highest peak, Mount Erebus.<br>During 1910, Mawson began making plans for his own scientific and exploratory expedition. Mawson intended that the Australasian Antarctic Expedition (AAE) would have a strong focus on scientific research including magnetic charting for navigational purposes, geological and biological studies and the establishment of a wireless weather station. Three bases were to be established in Antarctica and another on Macquarie Island.<br>On the 2nd December 1911, Mawson and his team of 30 men departed Hobart on the steam yacht Aurora. Their first stop was at Macquarie Island on the 11th December 1911. A wireless relay station and scientific base was established on the northern end on a narrow spit of land between Hasselborough and Buckle Bays.<br>The Aurora departed again on the 23rd December 1911 and arrived at Cape Denison, Commonwealth Bay on the 8th January 1912. Due to poor weather only two bases were established, a combined base at Cape Denison and another one further west. By 11th January 1912 the Main Base had been fully established.<br>Site History<br>The chosen site for the Main Hut was a level section of rocky ground located in a valley, 60m from the edge of Boat Harbour.<br>Mawson designed the accommodation huts before leaving Australia. Based on his knowledge from his previous expedition the designs incorporated the need for wind resistance, simplicity, portability and resistance to the cold. The final design was a pyramid on a square base. The pre-fabricated huts were obtained from building companies in four Australian states. Two pyramid huts, one small hip-roofed hut and another smaller hut were acquired.<br>The Main Hut was a combination of one pyramid hut used to accommodate 18 men and the small hip-roofed hut, which was originally intended as the third base, but was attached and used as a workshop.<br>The Magnetograph House was erected in March 1912 on a cleared site approximately 400m northeast of the Main Hut. It was used to house the magnetograph equipment, which measured variations in the South Magnetic Pole. The Absolute Magnetic Hut was used in association with the Magnetograph House as a reference point. It was erected in February 1912 and located approximately 52m south of the Magnetograph House.<br>After the winter of 1912 Mawson and his team began making sledging trips inland to chart the area and make scientific explorations. On 10 November 1912 Mawson, Mertz and Ninnis set off to explore the far east coast. Ninnis fell into a crevasse and was killled. Mertz then became ill and died on the return trip. Mawson made the 160km return to Cape Dennison alone, he arrived back on 8 February just hours after the departure of the Aurora. A six man team stayed behind to search for Mawson and they along with Mawson stayed for another year. During that time they continued their scientific studies and also established a wireless telegraph station for two-way communication.<br>In November 1913 a Memorial Cross to Ninnis and Mertz was erected on Azimuth Hill, northwest of the Main Hut. The plaque was constructed from two pieces of scrap timber and screwed onto the face of the cross.<br>During May 1913 the Transit Hut was erected on a 900mm high rock ledge approximately 30m northeast of the Main Hut. The hut housed a theodolite which was used to take star sights and determine Cape Denison's exact longitude.<br>Mawson and the remaining men left Antarctica on February 5th 1914. It was more than another 15 years before Mawson returned in the summers of 1929-30 and 1930-31 as part of British, Australian and New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition (BANZARE). In January 1931 Cape Denison was visited for the first time since Mawson and his team had left in 1914. The aim was to claim possession of King George V land and other additional lands. A plaque and proclamation pole were erected on what is known as Proclamation Hill.<br>Australia became the administrator of the subject land in 1933 when the British Government handed over control. Approximately 42 percent of Antarctica is now managed by Australia. Mawson, the AAE and BANZARE all contributed to the establishment of Australia's role in Antarctic land management.<br>Description<br>Cape Denison is an area of rock approximately 2km long, protruding from the ice plateau at the head of the shallow crescent shaped Commonwealth Bay. Towards the western end of Cape Denison a small natural harbour indents the shoreline. The head of this harbour leads to a valley formed by two 40m high ridges to the east and west. The valley is generally flat with a gentle rise to the south. It is essentially ice covered with a few rocky outcrops. The Mawson's Hust Historic Site is situated in this valley.<br>The site consists of four huts, memorials and plaques and scattered artefacts. The Main Hut is located in the centre of the valley, the Transit Hut 30m to the east and the Magnetograph House and Absolute Magnetic Hut are located on the northern end of the eastern ridge. A Memorial Cross and plaque were erected on the summit of Azimuth Hill. Masts for the wireless station were erected to the north and south of Main Hut.<br>Various survey and sighting marks are located within the valley and the ridges. There are meteorological instruments erected on a rock shelf between the Main Hut and Transit Hut with additional instruments on the eastern ridge on a knoll known as Proclamation Hill. This is where the Proclamation Pole and plaque are located as well. There are also seal and penguin caches and various other scattered artefacts within the Historic Site area.<br>Main Hut: The Main Hut consists of two pre-fabricated Oregan timber huts with foundations set in 50 tonnes of loose rocks. Structural timbers are bolted together with tongue-and-groove Baltic pine used for internal and external cladding. The roof is pyramid shaped and supported in the centre by four 100mm by 100mm posts. A 1.5m wide verandah surrounds the structure on three sides.<br>The living section is an area of 7.3m by 7.3m. Bunks are arranged in two tiers around the walls with two seperate rooms, Mawson's room and the dark room. There is no direct external access. Entry is via the workshop, which is attached to the northern side of the living section. The workshop is a rectangular plan of 5.5m by 4.9m. It has a hipped-roof and a 1.5m wide verandah on the east and west sides. The western verandah contains access to the cellar and roof as well as a latrine.<br>There are four skylights over the living section, all with glass and timber covers which can be opened. There are two skylights in the workshop also with glass and timber covers.<br>Magnetograph House: The Magnetograph House is a pre-fabricated Oregan timber hut. Structural timbers are bolted together with tongue-and-groove Baltic pine used for internal and external cladding. There are also sheets of tar paper cladding below the timber boards. The plan is rectangular with dimensions of 5.5m by 2m. There is a shallow pitched skillion roof which has a copper ventilator installed in it. There is an inner and outer porch with three doorsets. The external door is a double 'stable' ships door taken from the shipwrecked Clyde at Macquarie Island.<br>Absolute Magnetic Hut: The Absolute Magnetic Hut is a deteriorated ruin consisting of only a complete south wall with portions of the east wall and the framing of the north and west walls. The frame is constructed of leftover Oregan timber with timber boarding and lining of tar paper. The plan is 1.8m square.<br>Transit Hut: The Transit Hut is an Oregan timber framed hut with no roof. There is external timber boarding (which originally had internal tar paper lining). The structure has one door in the northeast corner.<br>Memorial Cross and Plaque: The upright and crossbar are fabricated from remnant timber of approximately 170mm by 170mm. The upright projects 3.4m above the surrounding rocks and is capped by a 65mm wide metal collar. The crossbar is 2.2m long with a 65mm wide collar at each end. The crossbar is fixed to the upright 2.2m above the rocks. The crossbar has been blown off numerous times and was re-attached in 1931 by BANZARE, 1978 by the Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions (ANARE) and a third time by the AAP Mawson's Huts Foundation expedition in 1997/98.<br>The plaque is a replica or the original and was attached by ANARE in 1978. It has the same inscription as the original.<br>Proclamation Pole and Plaque: A small plaque and proclamation have been affixed to the mast of the AAE anemomemter station located on Anemometer Hill. The original proclamation was replaced by ANARE with a replica in 1978; the original plaque was replaced by ANARE with a replica in 1988.<br> <br>History<br>Not available.<br> <br>Condition and Integrity<br>Basically structurally sound. Some external wind damage and interiors largely ice filled. Restoration of huts in planning stage. (1987) Absolute Magnetic Hut in ruins and beyond repair. Transit Hut unroofed and in bad condition.<br>Mawson's Huts were stabilised during a works expedition in 1997/1998. In 2000 it was recorded that the Main Hut and the Magnetograph House have intact structures and cladding. The Transit Hut and Absolute Magnetic Hut have had no roof since c1911. They have also lost significant amounts of cladding, but the remaining framing and cladding has been stabilized so that they can be conserved as standing ruins.<br>Mawsons Huts and associated artefacts were further conserved during the 2002-2003 field season. The structural stability of the floors was investigated, but not resolved, and the wall and roof of the Main Hut were investigated. Broken rafters were repaired as well as some of the external cladding and rooflights, with removal of much of the snow and ice from the interior of the Main Hut. Environmental monitoring and documentation and assessment of artefacts were also undertaken.<br>Conservation works were also undertaken to the fabric (roof and walls) of the Transit Hut and Absolute Magnetic Hut.<br> <br>Location<br>About 40ha, 120km east of Dumont D'Urville Station, Commonwealth Bay, King George V Land, bounded by a line commencing at the most southerly point of a bay about 120m north-east of Magnetograph House then running southerly along the ridgeline between Long and Alga Lakes to 40m ASL, then westerly at that altitude to Lands End, then northerly and easterly via the coastline to the commencement point.<br>Bibliography<br>Blunt, W., 1991, Mawson's Huts Antarctica - A Conservation Proposal, Project Blizzard, Hornsby<br>Godden Mackay Logan, 2000, Mawson's Huts Historic Site - Draft Conservation Management Plan: Report prepared for AAP Mawson's Huts Foundation, Godden Mackay Logan Pty Ltd, Sydney<br>Hayman, S., Hughes, J. and Lazer, E., 1999, Deterioration Monitoring and Tourism Management at Cape Denison (Mawson's Huts), Australian Antarctic Territory: Report to the Australian Heritage Commission, Department of Architectural and Design Science, University of Sydney<br>Marshall, D., 1987, Mawson's Huts - Commonwealth Bay - Structural and Material's Performance: A report to Antarctic Historic Sites and Monuments Advisory Committee, Department of Housing and Construction, Canberra
Appendix D: Significance Assessment (2001)
Cultural Heritage Significance Assessment, Godden Mackay Logan (2001)
Introduction<br>This section provides a Statement of Cultural Heritage Significance for Mawson’s Huts Historic Site. The assessment of heritage significance is the distillation of the evidence and analysis described in the preceding sections and is the foundation upon which conservation policy for the place is developed and described in the following sections.<br>The terms heritage significance and cultural significance are interchangeable and refer to the reasons why the place is of value to present and future generations. Those reasons are defined in the Burra Charter of Australia ICOMOS (International Council for Monuments and Sites), the primary document guiding conservation in Australia, and in the Australian Heritage Commission Act 1975, as being the aesthetic, historic, scientific or social values attached to the place by the present generation, or likely to be valued by future generations.<br>This plan considers the cultural heritage significance of Mawson’s Huts Historic Site. The site may also have significance for its natural values which are outside the scope of this plan.<br> <br>Basis of Assessment<br>Previous Assessments<br>Mawson’s Huts Historic Site is entered on the Register of the National Estate (RNE) maintained by the Australian Heritage Commission.<br>The Statement of Significance in the RNE listing is based on this CMP. The place boundaries defined in the listing are equivalent to those of the Visual Protection Zone identified in this report. The RNE place description includes the historic features described in this CMP.<br>The Main Hut and the Memorial Cross are recognised as Historic Monuments by the Antarctic Treaty Parties. The Register of the National Estate and Antarctic Treaty listings are recognition that the place has heritage significance.<br>The Mawson’s Huts Antarctica: Statement of Significance (Allom Lovell Marquis-Kyle, 1988) and Mawson’s Huts Historic Site Conservation Plan(Michael Pearson, 1993) both include an assessment and statement of heritage significance. Pearson’s significance assessment was based on that in Allom’s report. This significance assessment adopts these assessments, with deletions and additions to reflect new information.<br>Criteria for Significance Assessment<br>Australia’s Antarctic Territory is administered by the Australian Antarctic Division on behalf of the Commonwealth Government. As a Commonwealth property, the appropriate criteria for significance assessment are defined in the Australian Heritage Commission Act, 1975, (Section 4[1A]) in relation to places worthy of inclusion on the Register of the National Estate.<br>The Register of the National Estate, created using these criteria, incorporates not only places with historical significance, but also places of natural and Aboriginal significance. Hence its criteria are broad enough to cover all three environmental components. For the purpose of this assessment the criteria are paraphrased to refer only to the historic environment appropriate to the assessment of Mawson’s Huts Historic Site. Briefly, the criteria identify that a place may be of significance because of its:<br> importance in the course or pattern of Australia’s history — their association with events, developments or cultural phases which have had a significant role in the human occupation of the nation;<br> possession of uncommon, rare, or endangered aspects of Australia’s history — such as demonstrating a distinctive way of life, custom, process, land-use, function or design no longer practised, in danger of being lost, or of exceptional interest;<br> importance in demonstrating the principle characteristics of a class of Australia’s cultural places — the ability of the place to represent its type;<br> special association with the life or works of a person or group of persons, of importance in Australia’s history;<br> strong or special associations with a particular community or cultural group for social or cultural reasons — a place highly valued by the community for reason of spiritual, symbolic, cultural or social association; and<br> potential to yield information that will contribute to a wider understanding of Australia’s history — the scientific (including archaeological) value of the place in providing evidence not available in other ways;<br> importance in exhibiting aesthetic characteristics valued by a community; or<br> importance in demonstrating a high degree of creative or technical achievement of a particular period.<br>These criteria refer to significance in an Australian context only. As the significance of any Antarctic monument is likely to be of international significance, the criteria for assessing such monuments should be read in a broader context. The assessment in Section 9.4, below, therefore expands the criteria to the international level where appropriate.<br>The assessment in Section 9.4 has been made utilising the Criteria for the Register of the National Estate: Application Guidelines, Australian Heritage Commission, 1990.<br> <br>Discussion of Significance<br>The evidence contained in the previous sections points to the following important factors in the history of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition (AAE) 1911–1914, and physical evidence remaining at Cape Denison and associated places:<br> its rarity as part of the small group of huts remaining from the Heroic Era of Antarctic exploration;<br> the importance of the AAE in terms of providing the foundation to Australia’s Antarctic endeavours;<br> the site’s association with Sir Douglas Mawson, an important Australia explorer and geologist;<br> the site’s association with the other AAE members, including those who continued their Antarctic associations (including Davis, Wild, Hurley and Moyes), those who continued careers in science (including Madigan, Webb, Laseron, Stillwell and Kennedy) and Frank Hurley for his contribution to photography;<br> the symbolic cultural value of the place and the story of the exploits of the AAE, particularly Mawson’s epic return from the tragic Far-Eastern Sledging Expedition, to Australia and the role this has had in legend building and national psyche;<br> the site’s potential to yield information, including the potential to repeat AAE science and the potential of the objects and specimens in Australia and artefact collections on-site to reveal information;<br> the intactness of buildings as a group demonstrates their function and the sense of a particular and intense period of time, as well as the passage of time since then, shown in the patina of the fabric;<br> the site is one of the least disturbed Heroic Era sites and the buildings, structures, memorials and artefact scatters in a contained valley setting form a powerful cultural landscape; and<br> fabric associated with the AAE forms a distributed collection on Macquarie Island and the inland plateau and in various collections in Australia and overseas.<br>The significance of Mawson’s Huts Historic Site is embodied in the occupation of the site by the AAE between 1912 and 1913, fabric and spaces relating to this brief moment in time and the Proclamation Plaque introduced by BANZARE in 1931. Fabric from later visits to the site and the snow and ice inside the huts obscures, to varying degrees, the clarity of the evidence of this brief moment and is not considered to be significant.<br>Application of Assessment Criteria<br>The significance of Mawson’s Huts Historic Site is summarised against each of the criteria used for assessment of National Estate values (as outlined in 9.2.2 above) and expanded to allow consideration in a world, as well as an Australian, context. The significance of the site as a whole is dealt with, then the contribution of each element of the site and associated sites and collections is identified where it is particularly relevant to the criteria.<br>Importance in the Course or Pattern of History<br>Mawson’s Huts Historic Site has historical importance for its association with the Heroic Era of Antarctic exploration, and with the scientific research which was a central part of the first period of land-based exploration of the region. This period in Antarctic history also marks the beginning of the last major terrestrial exploration of a continent in world history. Australia’s contribution to that phase was substantial and Mawson’s Australian Antarctic Expedition of 1911–1914 was the last of that period to fulfil its primary objectives. The period of Antarctic exploration which followed World War I is understood to have had different influencing factors to that of the Heroic Era, including major efforts by several nations to claim sovereignty over parts of the continent. All AAE remains on the site reflect this historic value equally.<br>Mawson’s work at Cape Denison became one of the key anchor points for Australia’s own claims to Antarctic territory. Mawson himself laid claim there on behalf of Britain in 1931. That claim was transferred from Britain to Australia by a British Order-in-Council in 1933, and was confirmed by the Australian Antarctic Territory Acceptance Bill the same year; taking effect in 1936 (Swan 1961:207–211). Mawson’s Huts Historic Site is the only surviving point of occupation in that territory which pre-dates the expansion of modern exploration in the 1940s and 1950s. The Proclamation Pole and the Plaque (now removed to Australia) are specific remains which relate to this aspect of Antarctica’s history.<br>In terms of its historical value related to science, the site of Mawson’s Huts is significant, marking the location of the earliest large-scale scientific inquiry by Australians outside Australia following Federation. The AAE laid firm foundations for Australia’s continued participation in Antarctic and Sub-Antarctic research and exploration. The Cape Denison site is significant as the main base of these undertakings. Included among the achievements of the AAE was the first use of radio on the Antarctic continent, linking the main base at Cape Denison with mainland Australia via the relay station established on Macquarie Island. The various huts and remains, such as the radio masts, are specific elements of the site which reflect this historical association.<br>Mawson’s approach to the organisation and make-up of the AAE reflected a broad national approach to obtaining funding, materials and personnel (he approached each State Government for funds and builders in each state for huts). In this sense, the AAE was one of the first steps towards nationhood in the period that followed Federation.<br>The use of wireless and use of an aeroplane (albeit as an air tractor) demonstrate a rapid growth in the use of technology associated with communication at the turn of the twentieth century. These aspects define a difference between Mawson’s AAE and many other Heroic Era expeditions.<br>Possession of Uncommon, Rare, or Endangered Aspects of History<br>The Main Base of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition is one of only six bases from the Heroic Era known to have survived in the Antarctic region. It remains the most diverse and complete of these bases, with its three functionally-specific scientific huts underscoring the purposes of the expedition base. It would appear that few of the Arctic expedition huts from the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries survive (Peary’s huts at Fort Conger are an exception [Dick 1991]). Mawson’s Huts Historic Site is therefore rare in a world historical context. All elements of the site contribute to this intactness, and hence to the site’s rarity.<br>As the Main Base of the AAE, the first and the only expedition organised, manned and supported by Australians during the Heroic Era, it is one of only two bases constructed in the Australian Antarctic Territory in this period and the only surviving base. It is, therefore, unique in Australian history. All aspects of the site share this value, though the Main Hut may be felt by many to be the key item reflecting this value.<br>Importance in Demonstrating the Principal Characteristics of a Class of Historic Places<br>For this assessment, the ‘class’ refers to the expeditions and huts of the Heroic Era.<br>The AAE was one of fifteen significant expeditions in the Heroic Era and one of nine that had timber prefabricated wintering huts. The AAE shares the characteristics of these expeditions: scientific and geographic discovery, as well as elements of heroic deeds and tragedy.<br>Mawson’s Huts Historic Site is one of six surviving Heroic Era wintering bases. It demonstrates the range of building uses, scientific equipment and artefact types typical of its class and period. All elements of the site contribute to this demonstration of what an Heroic Era base was like.<br>Of the six remaining Heroic Era huts, the AAE Main Hut is important as one of two of Australian design (with two each of Scandinavian and British origin) and demonstrates the national/cultural variety which existed within the class of expedition huts with its use of design features common in Australia, such as the verandahs and hip roofs.<br>The Main Hut at Cape Denison was based on Mawson’s experience of other expedition huts. This experience, together with other benefits that arose from construction at the end of the era, result in it being the climax of the Heroic Era hut type. Whereas some huts (such as the Scandinavian ones) were strongly culturally influenced, while others had no particular adaptation for the circumstances (BAE hut designed in Australia), Mawson’s accommodation huts were purpose-designed, based on theory and on experience.<br>The additional AAE collections of objects in Australia can also contribute to an understanding of the principal characteristics of this class of historic place.<br>The Main Hut at Cape Denison is also part of a broader class of hut buildings. It shares the typical characteristics of huts: it is located in a remote area for temporary occupation associated with work and was used by men. As such, it has research potential in aspects of human experience and behaviour in these buildings.<br>Special Association with the Life or Work of a Person or Group of Persons, of Importance in History<br>The AAE Main Base contains the only in situ evidence of early Australian Antarctic research associated with several important figures and groups in Australian and Antarctic history.<br>The association with Sir Douglas Mawson, the instigator and leader of the AAE and designer of the huts, is most important. Mawson was instrumental in every facet of the Expedition's organisation, from its conception through to the development of the main structure and the execution of the scientific undertakings. In addition, Mawson was the sole survivor of a tragic sledging journey in which BES Ninnis and Xavier Mertz lost their lives (to whom a memorial was erected on Memorial Hill). Each of the buildings at the site, and the Memorial Cross, individually illustrate aspects of this association. Sir Douglas Mawson, Australia’s most important Antarctic figure, continued a life-long commitment to Australia’s interests in the Southern Ocean and Antarctica.<br>Mawson’s Huts Historic Site is significant for its associations with all members of the AAE and the crew of the expedition vessel SY Aurora. The site’s association is not only with the eighteen members of the Main Base at Cape Denison, but also the eight members of the Western Base, and five members of the Macquarie Island Base. These activities and associations are important to Australia’s history in terms of early achievement in Sub-Antarctic and Antarctic scientific exploration and discovery. All elements remaining at the various AAE sites contribute to this value.<br>Mawson’s Huts Historic Site is particularly associated with AAE members who continued their Antarctic associations (including Davis, Wild, Hurley and Moyes) and those who continued careers in science and applied science (including Madigan, Webb, Laseron, Stillwell and Kennedy). A significant element of the legacy of the AAE lies in the photography of Frank Hurley, the most significant force to shape Australian documentary film before World War II.<br>Strong or Special Associations with a Particular Community for Social or Cultural Reasons<br>Mawson’s Huts Historic Site generally, with the Main Hut and Memorial Cross in particular, are significant as a symbol of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911–1914, its members, its achievements and its sacrifices.<br>The ‘communities’ who value these associations include the community of Antarctic veterans, the scientific community, and the Australian community as a whole. Mawson’s achievements have powerful symbolic value for the Antarctic science community, setting a model for science-based exploration which was adhered to by Australia in the later formation of ANARE and in its subsequent Antarctic programs.<br>Douglas Mawson’s story has become part of Australia’s exploration history and, as such, is part of the nation’s cultural tradition. It is arguably the most important and exciting exploration by an Australian this century, and has taken on a mythic quality which has merged with the popular interpretation of the Australian character and ethos, fitting into the mould of ‘success through tragedy’ stories shared with other myths such as Gallipoli, Burke and Wills, and the generalised Australian ‘battler‘.<br>The role of science in the exploits of the AAE became part of the national cultural tradition and still resonates in discussions about Australia’s role in science, both in its activities in Antarctica and in the world of scientific research generally.<br>The contemporary value that society holds for Mawson and the AAE is evidenced by the number of reprints of Mawson’s account Home of the Blizzard and community interest and financial support for the AAP Mawson’s Huts Foundation in its activities since 1996.<br>Potential to Yield Information that will Contribute to a Wider Understanding of History<br>The whole of Cape Denison contains evidence of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition, with a concentration of evidence in the Main Valley, where all of the AAE structures and the highest concentration of artefacts are located. Within Cape Denison, original points from which surveying, cartographic, meteorological and magnetic observations were made are still extant, including the three science huts, which still provide the facility to continue comparative scientific research.<br>As an archaeological resource, the significance of Mawson’s Huts Historic Site lies not only in the intrinsic historic value of these artefacts but also in the insights they provide into human behaviour (in responses to isolation and confinement and extreme climactic conditions) and the provisions and equipment available to expeditions during the early twentieth century. Some artefacts on-site are not found in collections in Australia and have potential to yield information not found elsewhere. This aspect of the site’s significance is enhanced by the fact, that of all the remaining historical hut sites in the Antarctic region, it appears to have been subject to the least intervention.<br>The weathering and survival of the huts and the decay of other artefacts, as a result of eighty-seven years exposure to hostile conditions, provides archaeological and scientific research potential in the area of materials deterioration and conservation.<br>Associated scientific specimens and cultural object collections from Cape Denison, now in Australia, have continuing potential to yield information, and have particular value being accessible to the Australian population. Some specimens on-site or in Australia have the potential to yield information on environmental change (ice cores now at the AAD and sealskins on site).<br>The significance of the site comes from the powerful interplay of documentary and physical evidence available in Australia and physical evidence on-site. Unlike sites where only physical evidence or only documentary evidence is available, the significance of this site has the potential to be accessed and understood both on-site and elsewhere.<br>Importance in Exhibiting Aesthetic Characteristics Valued by a Community<br>Both the landscape setting of Mawson’s Huts and the Huts themselves have aesthetic value. Mawson’s Huts Historic Site is a cultural landscape that retains a sense of historic time and place. The Site remains as isolated and remote as it did in 1912, with its historic structures clinging to the small peninsula of rock that is Cape Denison, surrounded by a vast mountain of ice and the spume of wind-whipped sea. This sense of a truly isolated place is powerful, both visually and symbolically.<br>The Main Valley and adjacent ridges exhibit an aesthetic landscape value by providing a strong sense of place, with the Main Hut located snugly near the water’s edge and the group of scientific huts contained within a defined valley, dominated by the Memorial Cross on one ridge and the BANZARE proclamation on the other ridge. The later, post-BANZARE, fabric (including Granholm Hut, the seatainers, the Automatic Weather Station and the Gadget Hut), within the visual catchment of the AAE/BANZARE structures, adversely impacts on this setting.<br>The fabric of the place evokes both the passage of time and the sense of a particular time. The vast majority of site fabric evokes the intense two years of AAE occupation, in particular, the interiors of the Main Hut and Magnetograph House that include foodstuffs, personal memorabilia and clothing. The weathering of the huts and the patination of their fabric and of other artefacts has aesthetic value. It also serves as a gauge of time elapsed since the AAE and of the conditions endured by its members in this remote and hostile environment.<br>The external form of the Main Hut has aesthetic value. The building form, comprised of pyramid and hip roofs over low external walls, sits with great repose in the landscape (especially with a build-up of snow around it). The two different room forms also express the change in the AAE’s plans that brought them together in the first place.<br>The interior of the living section of the Main Hut has particular aesthetic significance. This significance is underscored by a clear and strong internal structure and an efficiently planned use of space which provided both the functional requirements of accommodating eighteen men and a strong sense of communal focus and camaraderie around the central table, so well documented in Hurley’s photographs. The aesthetic qualities of the pyramid space, defined by the raked timber ceiling, timber beams and skylights rising over the central area, together with the evocative evidence of its historic use, produce an emotive response in visitors and viewers alike.<br>The Main Hut is a significant piece of architecture in its own right, with its evocative/aesthetic qualities defined by the character of its external form in the vast landscape and the internal structure, planning and spaces within the living section. While ice inside the Main Hut reveals a passage of time, it is not significant in relation to the value of the central open spaces.<br>Importance in Demonstrating a High Degree of Creative or Technical Achievement at a Particular Period<br>The AAE Main Hut is part of the group of Heroic Era huts where pragmatic considerations for shelter in a foreign and remote environment created the development of the expedition hut form appropriate for polar regions. The Main Hut is, perhaps, a climax of this building type and is clearly designed for its functional purpose.<br>Technically, the AAE Main Hut is of substantial importance. Of all the polar huts of the Heroic Era, the Main Hut is one of only two surviving hut structures (both Australian) which departed significantly from the ridge- roofed form of polar hut construction, using a distinctive pyramidal roof over a square plan with verandahs to three sides instead. The other hut was the ‘Discovery’ Hut of the 1901–1903 British Antarctic Expedition. In terms of the huts’ performance, however, the Main Hut of the AAE was technically superior to the ‘Discovery’ Hut, which was undoubtedly the least successful of all Antarctic huts.<br>The creative significance of Mawson’s Huts lies in the development of a hut model by the instigator and leader of the AAE, Sir Douglas Mawson. It was a bold and successful attempt at the development of a suitable building for the inhospitable Antarctic environment. This model not only relied upon the experience of earlier expeditions, with regard to materials and cladding methods, but on Mawson’s own knowledge and experience, which adds to its architectural and technical significance. Of the three huts based on this design, only two survive, and these were combined to create the main living and workshop sections of what is now known as ‘Mawson’s Main Hut’.<br>Mawson’s model was based on wind resistance, simplicity of construction, and portability and resistance to the cold. The AAE Main Hut displays an architectural quality reflecting each of these factors: great strength of external form and internal structure; a well designed and constructed building; and use of closed verandahs and insulation in walls to resist the cold.<br>Mawson’s Huts have additional technical significance through the collaboration evident between designer, technician and suppliers. Although the exact attribution of responsibilities in the design and documentation of the AAE accommodation buildings is not known, they appear to be the result of close collaboration between Mawson, who provided the concept, Alfred Hodgeman, articled architect, who developed the design and supervised its erection on site, and George Hudson and Sons and other firms in Australia, who manufactured the buildings and specified the erection process.<br>The AAE is significant as the first Antarctic expedition to pioneer the use of wireless communication and the first to attempt to obtain an aeroplane for use in Antarctica (although unsuccessful because of damage en-route).<br>The AAE is significant for the photography of Frank Hurley, including his innovative use of colour images and cinematography.<br> <br>Summary Statement of Significance<br>Mawson’s Huts Historic Site, Cape Denison, Commonwealth Bay, Australian Antarctic Territory, and the site of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition (AAE), 1911–1914, Main Base, is a place of national and international significance. The site is one of the small set of Heroic Era expedition bases which symbolise the first period of land-based scientific research and geographic discovery in Antarctica — the last continent to be explored. This era is one of great human adventure and achievement. The Mawson’s Huts Historic Site is unique in the context of Australian history and rare in a world context as the only surviving site representing the work of an Australian expedition. It is one of only six remaining sites from the Heroic Era.<br>The site of the AAE Main Base illustrates, in its surviving form and setting, the isolation and harsh conditions encountered by members of the expedition in their important work during that period. The expedition carried<br>out major scientific experiments and also laid the seeds for the eventual claim to a large portion of the Antarctic continent by an emerging nation. The place has a strong symbolic association with Sir Douglas Mawson, the AAE party and their heroic activities, and is evocative of Mawson’s leadership and the scientific endeavours undertaken. The site now provides physical evidence and a memorial of the Mawson story which is part of the Australian ‘Heroic’ tradition.<br>The significance of Cape Denison as the Mawson’s Huts Historic Site is embodied in a complex cultural landscape which contains buildings, a memorial cross, associated artefacts (both on-site and elsewhere) and records. The entire site and associated elements form a rich resource of research material that is available for scientific study and interpretation. Of particular importance within the Cape Denison cultural landscape is the visual setting of the AAE hut structures, the Memorial Cross and the 1931 BANZARE Proclamation Pole, being the Main Hut Valley and adjacent ridges.<br>The extant buildings at Mawson’s Huts Historic Site demonstrate development of Antarctic building design during an era of great experimentation in response to the uncertainty about conditions to be overcome. The Main Hut embodies Mawson’s own experience in other earlier Heroic Era huts and strongly reflects design concepts implemented in collaboration with team members and suppliers. The external form and internal structure of the Main Hut, together with the functional, impressive internal space, demonstrate a simple but strong architectural concept.
Appendix E: History of the Place
An Australasian Expedition
The late nineteenth century saw the beginning of the Heroic Era of Antarctic exploration. Interest in continental exploration and scientific study was renewed by European nationalism. From 1897 to 1917, teams from Britain, Norway, Germany, France, Belgium, Australia, New Zealand, Sweden, Scotland and Japan carried out fifteen land-based expeditions – some in quest of the South Geographic and South Magnetic Pole; others to explore and collect magnetic, meteorological, geological and biological data and samples. The expeditions captured the public imagination and made many explorers national heroes for their bravery, physical strength and endurance.
The expedition teams built shelters and lived in Antarctica for extended periods including over winter. Of the era’s nine prefabricated huts, six survive – Carsten Borchgrevink’s Southern Cross hut at Cape Adare (Norway/UK, 1899); Robert Scott’s Discovery hut at Hut Point (UK, 1901); Otto Nordenskjöld’s Antarctic hut at Snow Hill (Sweden, 1901); Ernest Shackleton’s Nimrod hut at Cape Royds (UK, 1908); Robert Scott’s Terra Nova hut at Cape Evans hut (UK, 1911); and Mawson’s Aurora huts at Cape Denison (AAE, 1911).
Australian geologist, Dr Douglas Mawson first voyaged to the Antarctic in 1907 as part of Shackleton’s British Antarctic Expedition (1907-1909), aboard the Nimrod (hence also referred to as the Nimrod expedition). He was part of a three-man team that reached the South Magnetic Pole and climbed Mount Erebus. Having returned to Adelaide as a local hero, in 1910 he began to plan a second journey south. Rather than joining Scott’s Terra Nova party in the quest for the South Pole (1910-1913), he envisaged a locally-planned expedition focused on geology and other sciences.
Australia and New Zealand have always been anxious for further knowledge of the great frozen continent lying to the southward of them. … Lying within wireless telegraphic distance of our borders, this region has a special call upon Australians. Alive to the value of scientific data there massed, waiting to be collected, I have ardently sought for an opportunity to reap the harvest.
– Sir Douglas Mawson, Geographical Journal, 1911
Mawson intended the Australasian Antarctic Expedition to be a scientific quest with the inclusion of magnetic charting for navigational purposes, geological and biological studies, and the establishment of a wireless weather station. The targeting of the area directly south of Australia also served broader national interests. Despite this focus on science, the association with heroic adventure likely persuaded Australian and multinational companies to donate supplies – from stationery to fuel, medicines to cigarettes, tinned food to photographic plates, soap to sleeping bags. Three well provisioned bases were to be established in Antarctica and another on Macquarie Island to transmit news back to Hobart by wireless telegraph.
The object of the expedition was to investigate the Antarctic Continent to the southward of Australia, a region where the continent was supposed to extend far to the north, but concerning which only the most scanty information was at hand. Most of the expeditions of late years have had as their objective the South Pole. Consequently, in order to secure the most promising route, their fields have much overlapped, and the area of the unknown has not diminished commensurably with the magnitude of those undertakings.
– Sir Douglas Mawson, Geographical Journal, 1914
On 2 December 1911, twenty-nine year-old Dr Douglas Mawson, leading a team of thirty men and accompanied by a professional crew of sailors, departed Hobart on the 50 m steam yacht Aurora, built in Dundee in the 1870s for Newfoundland whaling and sealing. The 600 t of cargo included numerous cases of supplies, timber for hut building, and fifty Greenland dogs which had been on board since Cardiff. Some supplies and passengers were carried for the first leg of the journey by the Toroa, which departed five days later. Many of the men were young graduates from Australian universities. The average age was approximately twenty-six. Four were New Zealanders, three were British and one was Swiss. The other twenty-two were Australian residents. Three of the leaders – Douglas Mawson, Frank Wild and John King Davis – were veterans of other Antarctic voyages. At least two others had applied for expeditions and been rejected (Belgrave Ninnis was not selected by Scott, and Herbert Murphy was rejected by Shackleton).
Londoner Davis, like Mawson a veteran of Shackleton’s Nimrod expedition, was deputy commander of the expedition and captain of the Aurora. The first stop was on 11 December 1911 at Macquarie Island, a remote sub-Antarctic island, approximately half way between Tasmania and Antarctica, just north of the Antarctic Convergence (or Antarctic Polar Front, where Antarctic Circumpolar Current waters meet warmer waters to the north). The five-man party they left behind, led by meteorologist George Ainsworth, was to establish a wireless relay station and scientific base on the island, which until then had been largely the domain of sealing gangs and commercial penguin oil harvesters.
The station on Macquarie Island was erected on the northern end on a narrow spit of land between Hasselborough Bay and Buckles Bay. Radio contact was established with passing ships in the first months, and with New Zealand and Hobart by the time winter was approaching. A working link to Cape Denison would prove more challenging. This link was not fully operational until 1913, when the party remained on the island for an unscheduled second year.
The Aurora departed Macquarie Island on 23 December 1911 and arrived at Cape Denison on 8 January 1912. On the voyage from Macquarie Island to the continent, Mawson abandoned the idea of a third base in the western Ross Sea region following news of Scott’s decision to establish a base there. Poor prevailing weather conditions also factored into his decision. The Main Base at Cape Denison ended up larger than planned through the combining of the huts intended for two separate bases, and was occupied by eighteen men – thirteen Australians, two New Zealanders, two Britons and a Swiss.
The Aurora carried an eight-man party of seven Australians led by Wild (a British veteran of both Scott’s and Shackleton’s expeditions), more than 2000 km to the west, to establish the Western Base known as ‘the Grottoes’ by the end of February 1912. The Western Base was built on the Shackleton Ice Shelf in Queen Mary Land, a region first visited by the German South Polar Gauss expedition (1901-1903) lead by Erich von Drygalski. The site, which was used only for a year, has been little visited since it was occupied. The hut, erected on floating ice 27 km from land, is presumed to have disappeared into the sea with the inevitable calving of the ice shelf.
The first year: building and sledging
Alfred Hodgeman, who would serve as the Main Base’s cartographer, designed the accommodation huts before leaving Australia. Based on Mawson’s knowledge from the Nimrod expedition, the designs incorporated the need for wind resistance and insulation from the cold, with the convenience of being portable and straightforward to erect. The final design was a pyramid on a square base. The prefabricated huts were obtained from building companies in four Australian states. Two pyramid huts, one small hip-roofed hut and another smaller hut were acquired.
The chosen site for the Main Hut that would have to serve as living quarters, workshop, storeroom and kennels, was a level section of rocky ground. The Main Hut was quickly erected, to minimise the time its eventual occupants had to sleep in tents. The completion of the hut was an opportune time to unfurl the Union Jack, upon which Mawson claimed possession of the area for the British Empire. He would repeat this ceremony in other places, and eventually named the sectors George V Land and Queen Mary Land, and Wild would perform a similar ceremony at the end of the year at the Western Base. While the claims were not formally commissioned or acted upon by the British government, they helped to lay the foundation of the formal claim two decades on, which established the Australian Antarctic Territory.
The Main Hut was a combination of a pyramid hut that, with the change of plan, would have to accommodate eighteen men, and a small hip-roofed hut, which was originally intended as the third base, but instead was attached and used as a workshop. It was reinforced by stacked boxes of stores on the three sides facing the prevailing weather. On the west side of the hut a makeshift hangar was annexed, made from packing cases. In the first two months, drift snow buried the hut to its roof, and its occupants improvised caulking to keep the tiny ice particles at bay, by plugging gaps between boards with rags, hessian and socks.
The Magnetograph House was erected in March 1912 on a cleared site approximately 400 m
northeast of the Main Hut, where the party had to use explosives to clear and flatten the site. Their first attempt was blown over by strong winds. Large rocks were moved to line the walls, and sheepskins and hessian attached to the roof. Some of the materials (copper nails and the door) were salvaged from the Clyde, whose shipwrecked crew the Aurora had met on Macquarie Island. It was used to house the magnetograph equipment, which Eric Webb used to measure variations in the South Magnetic Pole.
In the worst weather, Webb and his assistant on leaving the Living Hut made their way as best they could, largely on hands and knees, maintaining a definite course on the wind until reaching the rocky ridge at the northern end of which the Absolute Hut and Magnetograph House were situated. Then by a process of groping along and recognising the rock outcrops, principally by their shape judged by feel, the goal would be eventually reached.
– Sir Douglas Mawson, Introduction to Terrestrial Magnetism, AAE Scientific Reports Series B (1925)
The Absolute Magnetic Hut – used in association with, and as a reference point for, observations made in the Magnetograph House – was the other main structure achieved in 1912. This building, made from scrap timber and anchored to the rock to prevent it from being blown away, was erected 52 m south of the Magnetograph House.
Anticipating being confined indoors throughout winter, in the early months the Main Base party killed numerous seals and penguins and stockpiled the meat for both dog and human consumption. While sledging to explore the unknown territory was an immediate priority, the first
experimental journeys in February 1912 found most of the dogs to be in poor condition after the voyage, and major journeys were put off until after winter. The dogs sheltered in the eastern verandah of the workshop.
To civilise daily life, there was a good library for private and public reading, and gramophone records to enliven the evenings. Night watchman duty rotated, and with it came the rare opportunity of a bath (the men washed every eighteen days). In the tradition of polar quests, novice cooks experimented on tinned foods and locally slaughtered wildlife, with varying results, and diversions from board games to plays were encouraged.
Personal space was at a premium. The men made idiosyncratic alterations to their modest personal space, which was limited to a bunk for all but Mawson: the commander, or ‘the Dux’, had his own cubicle. Many posted pictures on walls and marked their initials on their bunks. The convivial young group of Dr Xavier Mertz, Ninnis, Francis Bickerton and Cecil Madigan – a Swiss, two Britons and an Australian – occupied bunks in the southeast corner of the living section, ‘Hyde Park Corner’. In the small dark room in the northwest corner, Frank Hurley developed short plays as well as his famous photographs.
Routine scientific observations were made regardless of the conditions. Mawson viewed regular magnetic and meteorological observations as imperative in order to ensure that his expedition obtained a comprehensive record and therefore made a genuine contribution to scientific knowledge. Complete weather observations, made every six hours regardless of the conditions, filled well over a thousand pages of note books. The men also dispatched messages in bottles. The notes asked the finder to return them to the Secretary of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science in Sydney, with a note of the time and place at which it was found, in order to learn something of the Southern Ocean currents.
My previous experience in Antarctica was very beneficial in securing the best lay-out of the instruments to meet the exigencies of the special circumstances presented in so remarkable a climate. After the routine of recording was well established, Mr. C. T. Madigan was thereafter appointed Chief Meteorologist which post he occupied with great credit throughout the two years occupation. The meteorological records were conducted with great system and perfect regularity throughout that time. The information obtained is unique in that it deals with an area which, it would appear, is the most windy spot on the earth’s surface. This is obviously owing to the situation of the station on the seaward-sloping margin of an elevated circumpolar ice plateau of continental proportions.
– Sir Douglas Mawson, Introduction to Meteorology, AAE Scientific Reports Series B (1929)
By August, field work became possible when a sub-surface sledging depot known as Aladdin’s
Cave was established 8 km inland from Cape Denison. Mawson and his teams began making inland
sledging trips to chart the area and make scientific observations, as did Wild in the vicinity of his Western Base. Some used dogs, but most of the major journeys were man-hauled. All proceeded into the unknown, and required both navigational skills and physical and mental strength. They faced invisible hazards in the unpredictable icescape, and other dangers arising from their equipment (one party nearly succumbed to carbon monoxide poisoning while cooking in an unventilated dugout).
The Australasian Antarctic Expedition was essentially a scientific expedition. As King George V Land had never been seen, much less trodden, before, Mawson aimed to cover the maximum possible area by sledging. Three men were needed at base to tend the meteorological and magnetic recording instruments, and to make the scheduled observations; which left 15 men for field work. These constituted 5 sledging parties of 3 men each, 4 for coastal exploration and one inland towards the South Magnetic Pole.
– Eric Webb, Magnetic Polar Journey 1912 (1965, unpublished)
There were five major expeditions from the Main Base:
Southern Party: Edward Bage, Webb and Hurley, observing magnetic conditions, appear to have reached within 80 km of the South Magnetic Pole, despite bad weather. They were helped by a southern supporting party (Murphy, John Hunter, Charles Laseron).
Western Party: Bickerton, Hodgeman and Whetter investigated the coastal regions to the west of Cape Denison. After abandoning the air tractor, the team reached 254 km from Cape Denison.
They sighted the first-known Antarctic meteorite. Near-Eastern Party: Frank Stillwell, John Close and Hodgeman (later replaced by Laseron) explored and charted the coast from Cape Denison to the Mertz Glacier.
Eastern Coastal Party: Madigan, Dr Archibald McLean and Percy Correll investigated the coast to the east of the Mertz Glacier. They reached Horn Bluff, a large cliff 434 km from the Main Base.
Far Eastern Party: On 10 November 1912 Mawson took the two dog handlers, Mertz and Ninnis, eighteen dogs and three sledges, to explore and map the far east coast, expecting to return by mid-January. This became a long and tragic journey which only Mawson survived. The story of is survival elevated Mawson in the public esteem.
On 14 December Ninnis fell into a crevasse and was never seen again. On the return journey,
lacking the provisions that had been carried on Ninnis’s sledge, rations ran out, and dogs died of exhaustion or were killed for food. Mertz fell ill – from toxins, food deprivation or sheer stress – and had to be towed on a sledge until he too died, and was buried by Mawson on 8 January 1913.
Mawson then cut his sled in half, and while starving, dehydrated, frostbitten and at times delirious, marched 160 km to Cape Denison alone, He was kept alive towards the end by a depot of provisions left by a rescue party. He was delayed again at the next food depot, being trapped for an entire week by poor weather in Aladdin’s Cave, barely a day’s march from his goal.
Mawson arrived back utterly exhausted on 8 February 1913. After three months away from the Main Base, including the tortuous solo trek, he arrived just hours after the departure of the Aurora, which was immediately contacted by the volunteers who had elected to remain behind and continue the search. However, due to the risks associated with returning, Captain Davis decided to leave Mawson and a six man team – Bickerton, Madigan, Bage, Hodgeman, McLean, and Sydney Jeffryes – for another year in Antarctica. The bare skillsets accompanying Mawson were a doctor turned biologist, two engineers, a cartographer, magnetician and wireless operator.
There were two major expeditions from the Western Base, leaving just one man (Moyes, the meteorologist) behind to look after the Grottoes for nine weeks of ‘immense’ silence, while he hoped for the safe return of his comrades:
Western expedition to Gaussberg: Jones, Hoadley and Dovers crossed the Helen Glacier and islands adjacent to Haswell Island. This party climbed Gaussberg (Mount Gauss: 370 m) and charted the coastline.
Eastern Expedition to Denman Glacier: Wild, Watson, Harrisson and Kennedy charted 650 km of coast (Bay of Winds, Delay Point, Redi Glacier, and Cape Gerlache) but did not reach the Denman Glacier before meeting the Aurora in February 1913.
The unplanned second year
Captain Davis’s decision not to retrieve Mawson, due to the impossibility of entering Boat Harbour
and the need to retrieve the party from the Western Base, stretched the AAE into an unplanned
second year.
… as we cannot possibly waste another minute we cleared off out of it at 6:20 P.M. I think the Captain’s idea is that as this Party ashore have their quarters built on land, where as the Party at Gaussberg are quartered on the Barrier ice, so you see they are on danger all the time. I suppose he reckoned it would be the wisest plan to look to their safety first which in my idea he was justified in doing. SGR Taylor, diary entry, 9 February 1913 Now there were only seven of us; we knew what was ahead; the weather had already given ample proof of the early approach of winter; the field of work which once stretched to the west, east and south had no longer the mystery of the “unknown”; the Ship had gone and there was scant hope of relief in March. Against all this there remained the Hut–a proven shelter from the wind; and, most vital of all, there was abundant food for another year. Every avenue of scientific work was not yet closed. Even the routine of meteorological and magnetic work was adding in no slight degree to the sum of human knowledge. Our short mile of rocks still held some geological secrets, and there were biological discoveries yet to make. A wireless telegraphic station had at last been established, and we could confidently expect communication with the outside world at an early date. These were some of the obvious assurances which no one had the heart to think about at first; and then there was always our comradeship, most enduring of all.
– Douglas Mawson, Home of the Blizzard (1915)
Mawson had lost most of his hair and his feet were badly damaged. The doctor, McLean, nursed him back to health, and the small party set out to improve the general living conditions in the Main Hut, which now housed seven rather than eighteen men. With little in the way of planned activities to complete, the second year was a contrast to the very active first year, and most accounts of the expedition pay it scant attention.
Food was moved inside, the wireless was transferred to the living section and new shelves were
constructed. The Aurora had delivered a new set of dogs, formerly used by Amundsen, which
proved worthy replacements of the original teams that had been lost. The party continued on a
smaller scale their study of geology and biology, and their collection of magnetic and meteorological data.
In May 1913 the Transit Hut, originally known as the Astronomical Observatory, was erected on a
900 mm high rock ledge approximately 30 m northeast of the Main Hut. It housed a theodolite
which Webb and Bage used to take star sights and, in conjunction with wireless signals from the Melbourne Observatory, Cape Denison’s exact longitude.
The strain of isolation, boredom and grief for the two lost comrades and the narrowly missed chance to return home took its toll on the remaining party. Mawson described it as a dreary and
difficult time. In particular, Madigan experienced depression, while Jeffryes developed a
debilitating mental illness, becoming increasingly paranoid and delusional.
Shortly after midwinter Jeffryes declared he was resigning his post, and his condition required
constant medical observation from McLean. This left Bickerton to teach himself Morse code and run the radio. The expedition’s typewriter was pressed into regular service to draft scientific reports, and Mawson spent the long winter managing different personalities, preparing biological specimens, cultivating yeast to make bread, and writing his memoirs which would become the expedition account, The Home of the Blizzard. McLean and Mawson produced the expedition’s newspaper, The Adelie Blizzard.
The hut was not so cold the second winter and we were not so crowded … But the wind was unvarying as ever, the food we knew too well in every possible combination, and we felt badly the need of occasional entertainment with people not subject to our routine or monotonous climate. We came to accept our life as normal and an effort of the imagination was needed to see oneself in a world supplied with grass and friendly weather and modern plumbing.
– Frank Bickerton, Australian Antarctic Expedition (1927)
The most pressing maintenance task was the wireless. Although two-way communication had been established in February, bad weather broke its upper mast in May. The weather was not
sufficiently calm to repair the structure and resume communications until August.
In November 1913, having received news that the Aurora was headed south, the party gathered the remaining provisions they thought worthy of returning to the ship, and readied themselves to abandon the huts. It was imperative to return to Australia everything of value in order to recover the expedition’s funding shortfall of several thousand pounds. For instance, the extensive library of educated gentlemen’s reference books, novels and plays to which the men referred in their diaries was packed for home, and the disposable ‘penny dreadfuls’ left behind.
The same spirit gave rise to the year’s only sledge journey of note, which unsuccessfully tried to retrieve valuable equipment from field depots. Back at the Main Base, Bickerton erected a memorial cross to Ninnis and Mertz on Azimuth Hill, northwest of the Main Hut. Hodgeman inscribed a plaque constructed from part of the kitchen table that was cut in two and screwed onto the face of the cross.
Mawson and the remaining men had secured the huts and left Cape Denison by Christmas 1913.
Mawson who was on shore superintending the getting on board of every little thing, charged round the winter quarters all yesterday, tearing down and gathering together, all the most frightful rubbish, so that nothing should be left behind! … all this stuff, which was fit for nothing else but the scrap heap … A broken foot scraper was hoisted in the bow, and old kerosene lamps without any burners, pumps without any valves etc. and high above all on an oar an old coffee grinder that they had never used because it wouldn’t work properly, and which is now rusted beyond recognition. … Thank goodness we are independent of the shore at last! Everything is off, including twelve dogs, and the hut is nailed up. I wonder if it will ever be visited by man again. I doubt it, after our tale of the weather.
– Percival Gray, diary entries, 18 and 23 December 1913
The Aurora would spend a further two months at sea before returning to a hero’s welcome in Adelaide. Publication of expedition – twenty-two volumes drafted by expedition members and experts in various countries – was delayed by war, lack of funds and tardy contributions.
AAE photography
Frank Hurley, a Sydney photographer working in the picture postcard industry, was the official photographer of the AAE, although other AAE members also recorded their observations. Hurley carried more than ten still cameras and one cine camera, recording 2500 images (many of these on glass plates and some in colour) and hundreds of metres of cine film in the first year. His images are a comprehensive visual record of the Antarctic landscape, the expeditioners, their dogs and expedition activities (Godden Mackay Logan 2001).
Hurley’s images of the AAE are held by various institutions including the Mawson Collection in Adelaide, the Barr Smith Library, the State Library of New South Wales, the National Gallery of Australia, the National Library of Australia, the National Film and Sound Archive, and the National Archives of Australia. Conservation expeditions in the late 1990s gained access for the first time to Hurley’s darkroom. On his own return visit in 1931, Hurley had found the door frozen closed and, in his words, had only been able to ‘gain a glimpse into its crystal lined interior’. Bottles of chemicals, photographic paper and glass plates have been found, indicating the photographic techniques used in Antarctica in the early years of the twentieth century.
Wireless communication
The AAE set up a wireless relay station and scientific base on Macquarie Island on their way south. Wireless masts, a receiving hut and an engine house were erected at the summit of a 45 m hill, now known as Wireless Hill. It was intended to be a lifeline between the ice and the Australian-based wireless station at the Queen’s Domain in Tasmania. The base at Macquarie Island was only established after a realisation that Antarctica was too far away to transmit without a relay station.
The establishment of radio communications and the installation of the necessary equipment at the Main Base at Cape Denison was not an easy task. The wireless operator was based in the workshop, and later in the living section of the Main Hut, where warmer and drier conditions improved the operation of the equipment. Two radio masts were erected by late August 1912, and a temporary aerial enabled messages to be sent to Macquarie Island by 25 September 1912, until one of the masts was broken by wind in October.
On October 7th the aerial system was further improved by raising a topgallant section on the northern mast, bringing it up to 90 feet in height, and an optimistic note appears in the record for October 12th,stating that the wireless masts had held remarkably well up to date and pointing out that one fine day with wind less than 30 miles per hour was all that was required to complete the aerial system. Unfortunately, a hurricane arose on October 12th-13th, and the northern mast collapsed. The gusts of wind were estimated by Mawson to have reached something like 250 miles an hour.
– Eric Webb, Terrestrial Magnetism, AAE Scientific Reports Series B (1925)
The reconstructed apparatus successfully sent messages, but was not able to receive them. Two-way communication resumed in February 1913. In May 1913, following strong gusts that broke the top and middle section of the main wireless mast, Bage and Bickerton made a kite to fly the radio aerial. A Venesta-box kite was used and successfully flew briefly but after several crashes the kite was no longer capable of flying. This may have been the first time a kite was flown in Antarctica.
When Mawson visited Macquarie Island with British, Australian and New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition (BANZARE) two decades on, the accommodation hut was standing but in a poor state, and on Wireless Hill the masts were down and the engine house was unroofed, but the transmission house (wireless hut) was intact. Some fabric remains on Wireless Hill, including remnants of the flying fox. Two generators recovered in the early 1960s are now in custody of the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery. The base of one of the wireless masts was removed from the island in 2011 for conservation purposes. The accommodation hut on the isthmus was demolished by ANARE in March 1948 to make way for a new station. Building foundations and remnants and haulage cable, amongst other artefacts, remain on site.
The air tractor
Mawson obtained a REP Monoplane from Messrs Vickers and Co for the expedition. Mawson’s specifications of the aircraft to Vickers included the requirement to have the aircraft wings removable so it could be operated as a tractor. Additionally, the packing crate was designed so that it could be converted to a hangar. It was hoped that this relatively rare machine would generate much-needed publicity during the preparation for the expedition and, when in Antarctica, assist with exploration, however, the aeroplane was damaged during a test flight in Adelaide (with Wild on board), and was modified for use as a wingless ‘air tractor’. The expeditioners appreciated the irony of using a state-of-the-art aeroplane engine to haul conventional sledges, albeit with limited success.
In 1912, the Western sledging party took the air tractor on their expedition, but the engine’s pistons seized and the machine was abandoned when the party was only 14 km from Cape Denison. Several months later, the air tractor was retrieved. The machine, minus its engine, was left near the Main Hut, where it was found seventeen years later by the BANZARE expedition.
Our first visit was made to the old aeroplane, which lied partly buried in the ice close to the hut where it was abandoned after removing the engine. The framework was all of steel tubing–very heavy compared with today’s construction, & was in a remarkably good state of preservation. In fact all the objects about the hut were in this condition, due to the dry condition of the air & the continual attrition of the snow particles blasting them.
– Frank Hurley, diary entry, 5 January 1931
Various parts of the air tractor have been found during conservations expeditions over the years. In 2010, fragments of the air tractor were found in Boat Harbour and returned to Australia for conservation purposes. In 1978, a section of the tail which had been blown towards the water’s edge was stored inside the workshop before it was returned to Australia in 2011.
BANZARE visit
Seventeen years after his original expedition, Mawson – who had been knighted for his AAE achievements – returned. In the summers of 1929/30 and 1930/31, he led the British, Australian and New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition (BANZARE). Organised in Australia, with a vessel from the British government (the Discovery, used by Scott in 1901) and financial assistance from New Zealand, the voyages had a prominent political goal, which was to claim possession of George V Land and any other additional lands possible. Mawson made five territorial proclamations, as well as extensive marine and coastline surveys.
The BANZARE landing on 5 January 1931 was the first at Cape Denison since Mawson and his remaining AAE members had left. His party hoisted a flag on the old mast on Anemometer Hill, which became Proclamation Hill thereafter. After a ceremonial declaration and singing of the national anthem, the party deposited a proclamation in a casket at the foot of the pole, claiming formal possession in the name of His Majesty King George the Fifth, His Heirs and Successors.
Apart from the proclamation, the visit – one of few landings punctuating a voyage also focused on marine science – was nostalgic. The Main Hut was entered through a skylight, to reveal that many objects and the floor were embedded in thick ice, or encrusted in frost. Several expeditioners –
including Mawson and Frank Hurley, who were amazed to see so much intact evidence of their AAE years – spent the night ashore in tents.
Members of the expedition took some items as souvenirs, including books, and supplemented their fuel stores by taking oil and petrol cans from the dump behind the Main Hut. They also removed the roof of the Absolute Magnetic Hut in order to gain access and replicate the AAE’s magnetic measurements.
… the Absolute Hut was found to be in fair order, except that the sliding doors had been blown in and several boards were loose, with the result that the Hut was tightly filled with snow and hard ice, the latter partly due to the relegation of thaw water during summer months. The hut roof had to be removed to enable this accumulation of snow and ice to be cleared, and in order to lay bare the tripod leg ‘dabs’. … The original timber roof was not replaced owing to lack of time and material. Had it been replaced the roof would have had to be removed again in the event of any subsequent reoccupation of the station.
– AL Kennedy, in C Coleridge, Terrestrial Magnetism, BANZARE Scientific Reports Series A (1944)
Australia became the administrator of the subject land in 1933 when the British Government handed over control. Approximately 42 per cent of Antarctica is now Australian Antarctic Territory. Mawson, the AAE and BANZARE all contributed to the establishment of Australia’s enduring national interest in this vast portion of the Antarctic continent.
Modern scientific expedition visits
Until the 1970s, there were only brief visits to the site in the course of broader scientific expeditions which often used the Absolute Magnetic Hut to take further magnetic measurements. French parties visited the site en route to Port Martin in 1950 and 1951, and from the new Dumont d’Urville station in 1959, 1967 and 1968. New Zealand and U.S. parties visited the site, again for magnetic observations, in 1962.
The first Australian visit since BANZARE took place in 1962. The short visit allowed expeditioners to take magnetic measurements and photographs during a station resupply voyage led by Dr Phillip Law, first Director of the Australian Antarctic Division.
Comparison: Mawson’s Huts and other Heroic Era huts
Heroic Era huts were (to varying degrees) purpose-built for polar winter accommodation, to support specific scientific expeditions. The rarity value of these huts is underlined by the scarcity of extant early Arctic expedition huts (where ship accommodation was generally used). The design form, construction materials, structure, functional planning and services of these huts reflect the function of the expeditions and their polar location.
General characteristics of the group include: building forms and structures to resist winds; prefabricated timber construction (including a numbering and colour system for ease of erection and the pre-construction of some huts prior to the expeditions); materials and insulation to resist the cold (double layers of plank and/or boards, together with natural fibre and tar paper insulation); and particular services for remote locations including heating (compressed coal) and lighting (acetylene gas).
Mawson’s Main Hut, the last constructed in this era, benefited from the lessons learned with other huts. It used similar construction techniques and heating and lighting technology to the British huts. It appears to have achieved a reasonable balance between insulation, heating and ventilation. It has not yet been determined whether there was no insulation throughout, apart from tar paper, or whether a straw-like cellulose material found in parts of the living section wall cavity served this purpose.
As a group, Mawson’s Huts probably retain the most intact and diverse range of accommodation and
scientific facilities of the Heroic Era complexes. The strength and clarity of the spaces and functional arrangements in the living section of the Main Hut is, perhaps, greater than that revealed in the plans of other surviving Heroic Era huts. The arrangement of bunks around the central communal area, reinforced as a focus by the platform over the area, and the raking pyramid ceiling creates a spatial volume of great character. These characteristics indicate a building of considerable design and construction significance, in addition to its historic values.
All of the surviving structures of the Heroic Era are designated as Historic Sites and Monuments
under the Antarctic Treaty system, and most of them are within Antarctic Specially Protected Areas (ASPAs). The countries responsible for managing these sites apply various levels of intervention in the conservation of these sites:
Borchgrevink’s Southern Cross Hut; Scott’s (Campbell’s) Northern Party Hut, Cape Adare (designated as HSM 22 and ASPA 159): Preservation with stabilisation, and repair (restoration and reconstruction) since the 1970s. In 1899, the expedition erected two kit timber huts from Norway – a living hut, and a stores hut. Today, the huts are surrounded by artefacts including boxes, sacks of coal, barrels and other miscellaneous stores. Many of the original contents remain intact inside the living hut. The fitted bunks, the original stove, and many of the stores, clothing and papers are in good condition. The roof of the stores hut was removed in 1900 before the expedition left.
Scott’s Discovery Hut, Ross Island (designated as HSM 18 and ASPA 158): Preservation with stabilisation, and repair (restoration and reconstruction) since the 1960s. The expedition base at Hut Point comprised three prefabricated huts erected in 1902. In 2015, the New Zealand Antarctic Heritage Trust’s (NZAHT) completed a two-year programme of conservation at Discovery Hut to weatherproof and repair the building, and more than 500 artefacts have been conserved since by artefact conservators.
Shackleton’s Nimrod Cape Royds Hut, Ross Island (designated as HSM 15 and ASPA 157): Preservation with stabilisation, and repair (restoration and reconstruction) since the late 1950s. Shackleton set up base this base at Cape Royds in 1908. The NZAHT undertook major four-year conservation programme between 2004 and 2008 to secure and weatherproof the building and conserve the c. 6,100 artefacts.
Scott’s Terra Nova Hut, Cape Evans, Ross Island (designated as HSM 16 and ASPA 155): Preservation with stabilisation, and repair (restoration and reconstruction including over-cladding the roof) since the late 1950s. The hut is the largest of the historic huts in the Ross Sea region and was erected in 1911. Surrounding the hut are several other structures and a large number of stores and other items left by the expeditions. The structures include the remains of a stone hut built by Cherry-Garrard, the anchors of the Aurora from Shackleton’s Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition, the latrine immediately to the north of the hut; the meteorological screen and magnetic hut, and an instrument shelter and memorial cross on Wind Vane Hill. Between 2008 and 2015, In the NZAHT undertook a comprehensive conservation programme to save the site. In 2012 carpentry conservation program weatherproofed the building and made it structurally sound. By 2015, more than 11,000 artefacts on site had been conserved under the conservation program.
Nordenskjöld’s Antarctic Hut, Snow Hill Island (designated as HSM 38): Preservation with stabilisation, and repair (restoration) by Argentina since 1981, with maintenance and archaeological surveys. A related stone hut on Paulet Island is a ruin within a penguin fence. Both areas are subject to site-specific guidelines for visitors under the Antarctic Treaty system.
Appendix F: Conservation works to date
Season
Conservation works
1931
Memorial cross crossbar reattached (BANZARE)
1951
Memorial crossbar re-attached (French expedition)
1974
Memorial cross repaired
1977
Main Hut skylight covers repaired<br>Repatriation: memorial cross plaque, BANZARE proclamation, sledge, wheel, pipe,<br>spanners and dividers returned to Australia
1978
Memorial cross crossbar reattached and replica plaque installed<br>Main Hut workshop roof patched, ice removed, some interior lining replaced, artefacts<br>recorded and stored<br>Main Hut living section artefacts extensively recorded
1981
Retrieval of artefacts for display in Australia, and film-making for a documentary
1982
Main Hut minor roof repairs
1984-86
Main Hut internal platform stabilised with metal and timber props<br>Artefact scatters: initial archaeological site survey<br>Main Hut and Magnetograph House artefacts documented<br>Main Hut ice excavated<br>Condition assessments<br>Memorial and proclamation plaques removed and replaced with replicas<br>Experimental work for future conservation of materials on the site
1996
Survey visit to gather information for a works plan
1997/98
Main Hut skylights, ridge capping, gutters and flashings repaired and ice removed<br>Main Hut workshop roof over-clad<br>Main Hut living section central platform restored<br>Magnetograph House roof re-clad, door and tar-paper lining repaired<br>Absolute Magnetic Hut excavated from ice and original building fabric restored<br>Transit Hut structure restored – loose boards re-fixed<br>Memorial cross crossbar reattached with stainless steel brackets<br>Internal environmental monitoring equipment installed<br>Archaeological site survey; artefacts documented; ice cores taken
2000/01
Main Hut battens added to cover gaps on southern roof plane<br>Archaeological site survey; artefacts documented
2002/03
Main Hut structural investigations and workshop roof structure repaired<br>Site Geographic Information System (GIS) framework and artefacts inventory established<br>Living section and workshop artefacts catalogued<br>Artefact scatters around Main Hut, Penguin Knob and the two seal caches documented<br>Environmental sensors and data loggers reinstalled<br>Archaeological site survey; artefacts documented
2005/06
Main Hut parts affected by snow and melt water ingress repaired/monitored<br>Main Hut living section roof battens secured and ice removed<br>Workshop skylight covers replaced
2006/07
Main Hut living section roof encapsulated (over-clad with fabric membrane and Baltic<br>pine)<br>Vibration sensors installed<br>Main Hut living section snow and ice removed<br>Main Hut flagpole returned to Australia; replica installed
2007/08
Construction of laboratory for artefact conservation treatment<br>Archaeological survey of artefact scatter<br>Continued snow and ice excavation inside Main Hut
2008/09
Removal of snow and ice from Main Hut<br>Reinstating and fixing of timbers to the Transit Hut<br>Completion of new laboratory to treat artefacts<br>Documentation of condition of buildings<br>Conservation treatment of 88 artefacts<br>Documentation and removal of snow and ice from Main Hut
2009/10
Platform timber in Main Hut reinstated<br>Excavation of ice in several locations inside Main Hut<br>Over-cladding of the outside southwest corner of Main Hut<br>Magnetograph House opened and internal condition recorded<br>Photography, cataloguing and treatment of 156 artefacts<br>Survey and map of the internal fitting and artefacts inside Main Hut and workshop<br>completed<br>Air tractor fragments recovered and returned to Australia for treatment<br>Archaeological survey completed and exposed artefacts mapped using kite aerial<br>photography
2010/11
Timber portal frame installed to stabilise Transit Hut<br>Packing and removal of air tractor tail for conservation treatment<br>Archaeological survey of an artefact scatter north of Main Hut
2012
Minor maintenance and condition report<br>Vital repairs to skylight covers
2013/14
Monitoring of huts and memorial cross
2015/16
Excavation of artefacts in the living quarters and workshop of Main Hut<br>Floor exposed for the first time since 1931<br>Environmental monitoring data downloaded and units replaced
2018/19
Rapid assessment – Transit Hut in very poor condition
2021/22
Ice removal from workshop and living quarters in Main Hut<br>Ice ingress recording<br>Building fabric recording (timber thickness, moisture content, fabric loss)<br>Downloading of data from data loggers and their reinstallation<br>Comprehensive set of building photos to allow for future comparison<br>Installation of over-cladding to the Transit Hut southern plane<br>Fabrication of a new access walkway across the artefact scatter to the front door of Main Hut<br>Condition assessment (timber thickness and photo recording) of Memorial Cross<br>Condition assessment and photo recording of Proclamation Pole<br>Documentation of artefacts during ice removal – photographs, descriptions, locations, and condition
To outline planned conservation works for any given expedition
Expedition Reports
AAD – individual project files
To document activities undertaken in relation to Works Plan
Previous Management Plans
AAD – individual project files
Provide a record of management over time
Images
Image Antarctica
For the most up to date imagery of the site
Metadata
AADC
For maps, shape files, aerial photographs and satellite images of the site
List of artefacts
Antarctic Heritage Register (archive)
For a list of artefacts in situ between 1985 and 2014
Archaeological survey
Antarctic Heritage Register (archive)
For historical information on the artefact scatter at the site
ASPA Management Plan
Antarctic Treaty Secretariat website
For the protection of various values at the site
HSM information
Antarctic Treaty Secretariat website
Recognition of the site’s historical significance within the ATS
Appendix H: Post-1950 fabric
Miscellaneous items
Until the 1970s, there were only brief visits to the site in the course of broader scientific expeditions which often used Absolute Magnetic Hut to take further magnetic measurements. French parties visited the site en route to Port Martin and later Dumont d’Urville in the 1950s also in the 1960s when New Zealand and US parties visited the site. Various items have been recorded from this period, including a logbook with notes from visiting parties in Magnetograph House, ration packs, tin cans, soap powder, alcohol bottles and more. Some of these items have been removed from the site, while some still remain.
Granholm Hut is a temporary shelter and workshop established by the 1978 ANARE party 160 m northwest of Main Hut (67°00’29”S, 142°39’26”E), prior to the establishment of the Visual Protection Zone of the historic site (2004) in which it is located. It has been retained as an emergency refuge and a convenient place to store conservation tools and equipment. The hut has been painted to blend into the rocky landscape to lessen its visual impact on the site.
Sørensen Hut is the main temporary shelter for conservation works parties and was built by the AAD in 1986 as a single room with an entry lobby. It sits outside of the Visual Protection Zone 400 m east of Main Hut (67°00’29”S, 142°40’12”E). It was expanded in 1997/98 with the addition of an office section at its southern end, and an externally accessed toilet at the northern end. Following a further expansion in 2008/9, the hut now contains a conservation laboratory and sleeping, dining and office facilities.
Apple Hut is adjacent to Sørensen Hut and serves as accommodation. It was brought to the site by Project Blizzard in 1984, and moved from the Granholm Hut vicinity by the AAP Mawson’s Huts Foundation in 1997/98. A nearby wooden platform is used for pitching tents.
Figure 21: Expeditioner and University of Wisconsin Automatic Weather Station
Source: David Killick, 2022
An Automatic Weather Station was installed in 1990 on a rise near Round Lake and approximately 150 m southeast of Main Hut (67°00’33”S, 142°39’51”E), prior to the establishment of the Visual Protection Zone of the historic site (2004) in which it is located. It has collected meteorological data until its replacement in 2011. It is the property of the University of Wisconsin, Madison, United States.
Tide gauge
Two tide gauges were deployed in Boat Harbour in 2007/08 by a joint Australian-French project to measure the height of the sea. This was the first time the sea level had been properly recorded since 1912. The Australian tide gauge was removed in 2009.
A time capsule was installed on 16 January 2012 at the base of the Proclamation Pole to commemorate the centenary of the AAE. It is to be opened in 2112. The capsule contains a message from the Australian Prime Minister and messages from Australian students who offered their vision of Antarctica in another hundred years. A plaque to commemorate this event was laid at the base of the Proclamation Pole next to the time capsule.
Bibliography
General Publications
Ashley, G and Mackay, R (2004). ‘Mawson’s Huts Historic Site, Antarctica: the conservation management plan as a decision making tool’. In: Barr, S, and P Chaplin (eds). Cultural Heritage in the Arctic and Antarctic Regions. ICOMOS International Polar Heritage Committee.
Australian Antarctic Division (2003). Mawson’s Huts Historic Site, Cape Denison, Commonwealth Bay, Antarctica: a place of international significance.
Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-1914 (1922-42). Scientific Reports (Series A Geography, Geology and Oceanography; Series B Meteorology, Series C Zoology and Botany).
Avango, D (2018). “Historical Sites and Heritage in the Polar Regions.” In The Routledge Handbook on the Polar Regions, edited by Mark Nuttall, Torben R. Christensen, and Martin J. Siegert. 116-133. Abingdon: Routledge.
Ayres, P (1999). Mawson: a Life. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press/Miegunyah Press.
Barr, S (2018). “Twenty years of protection of historic values in Antarctica under the Madrid Protocol.” The Polar Journal 8, 2: 241-264.
Bemrose, A (2011). Mawson’s last survivor: the story of Dr Alf Howard. Boolarong Press, Brisbane.
Bickel, L (1977). This Accursed Land. Macmillan, Melbourne.
British Australian and New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition 1929-1931. Reports (Series A Geography, Oceanography, Meteorology and Terrestrial Magnetism; Series B Zoology and Botany).
Burch, W (1968). ‘Commonwealth Bay Revisited’, Aurora (ANARE Club Journal) June: 12-13.
Caesar, A (1999). The White: Last days in the Antarctic journeys of Scott and Mawson 1911-1913.
Cormick, C (2011). In bed with Mawson: travels around Antarctica. New Holland Publishers, Sydney.
Daniel, V and Ashley, G (2002). ‘The use of monitoring as a decision-making tool in the Mawson’s Huts Historic Site Conservation Management Plan and the results of monitoring for the period 1999-2002’. AICCM (Australian Institute for the Conservation of Cultural Material) Bulletin 2002: 25-35.
Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment (2020). “State of the Environment: Heritage values and the Antarctic environment.” Government of Australia.
Dixon, R and Lee, C (2011). The diaries of Frank Hurley 1912-1941. Anthem Press, London.
Dodge, C.W. (1948). BANZARE Reports, Series B, Vol. VII. British Australia New Zealand Antarctic Expedition.
Ellyard, D and Burch, W (2006). ‘The “Two Huts” Strategy for Commonwealth Bay’, Aurora (ANARE Club Journal) 26 (2): 28.
Evans, S (2011). “Icy Heritage–managing Historic Sites in the Antarctic: Pristine Wilderness, Anthropogenic Degradation or Cultural Landscape?” The Polar Journal 1, 1: 87-100.
Ferguson, RG (1995). Antarctic Artefacts: a selective description and annotated catalogue of artefacts in the Mawson Collection at the University of Adelaide. University of Adelaide, Adelaide.
Fletcher, H (1984). Antarctic Days with Mawson: a personal account of the British, Australian and New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition of 1929-31. Angus and Robertson, Melbourne.
FitzSimons, P (2011). Mawson and the ice men of the heroic era: Scott, Shackleton and Amundsen. Random House Australia, North Sydney.
Fogg, GE (1992). A History of Antarctic Science. University Press, Cambridge.
Griffiths, T (2007). Slicing the Silence: Voyaging to Antarctica. UNSW Press, Sydney.
Hains, B (2002). The Ice and the Inland: Mawson, Flynn and the myth of the frontier. University Press, Melbourne.
Hall, L. (2000). Douglas Mawson: The Life of an Explorer. Sydney: New Holland.
Harrisson, CT (2011). Mawson’s forgotten men: the 1911-13 Antarctic diary of Charles Turnbull Harrisson. Murdoch Books Pty Ltd.
Harrowfield, D (2006). ‘Analysis of timber weathering and wind velocity at Cape Adare, with comments on other historic sites in Antarctica’, Polar Record 42 (223): 291–307.
Harrowfield, D (2005). “Archaeology on ice. A review of historical archaeology in Antarctica.” New Zealand Journal of Archaeology 26: 5-28.
Hoadley, JA (2010). Antarctica to Footscray. Arch Hoadley: a man of inspiration and courage. Sid Harta Publishers.
Hughes, J (2004). ‘Deterioration of Antarctic historic sites-effects of Antarctic climates on materials and implications for preservation’. In: Barr and Chaplin (op cit): 29-32.
Hunter, JG and Hunter JM (2011). Rise and shine: diary of John George Hunter Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-13. Hunter House Publications.
Hurley, JF (1931). The second voyage of the Discovery to Antarctica, 1930-1931 (diary manuscript) National Library of Australia (MS 883) Series 1 Item 17 (available online).
International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (2024). IAATO Overview of Antarctic Vessel Tourism: The 2023-24 Season, and Preliminary Estimates for 2024-25. (Information Paper 102 rev.1 for Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting 46).
Jacka, F and Jacka, E (1988). Mawson’s Antarctic Diaries. Allen and Unwin, North Sydney.
Jarvis, T (2008). Mawson: Life and death in Antarctica. Melbourne University Publishing.
Jensen, D (2008). Mawson’s Huts: the birthplace of Australia’s Antarctic heritage. North Sydney.
Jensen, D (2010). Douglas Mawson’s Antarctic bases: Cape Denison, Macquarie Island and the Shackleton ice shelf. Mawson’s Huts Foundation.
Langsford, A and Pharaoh, M (2000). In the footsteps of Sir Douglas Mawson. South Australian Museum, Adelaide.
Laseron, CF (1947). South with Mawson: reminiscences of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition, 1911-14. Angus and Robertson.
Law, PG, Law, NI and Toohill, I (2009). Dr Phillip Garth Law: his extraordinary life and times. Royal Societies of Australia.
Leane, E (2005). ‘The Adelie Blizzard: the Australasian Antarctic Expedition’s neglected newspaper’. Polar Record 41 (216): 11–20.
Lewis, JE (2012). The mammoth book of Antarctic journeys. Constable and Robinson Ltd.
Lintott, B (2017). “Antarctica: Human Heritage on the Continent of Peace and Science.” Paper presented at ICOMOS annual conference.
Mackay, R (2005). ‘Ice, icon and identity: the meaning of Mawson’s huts’. In Lydon, J and Ireland, T (eds). Object Lessons: Archaeology and Heritage in Australia. Australia Scholarly Publishing, Melbourne
Marshall, D (2007). ‘The ‘best’ strategy for Mawson’s huts’. Aurora March: 4.
Martin, S (1996). A History of Antarctica. State Library of New South Wales Press, Sydney.
Martin, S (2002). ‘Cold facts: Science and the Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-1914’. The Skeptic 2 (3): 42-44.
Martin, S and Cumming, H (2002). Lines on the Ice: Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-14 (in conjunction with Mitchell Library exhibition).
Mawson, D (1915; abridged in 1930). Home of the Blizzard: being the story of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition, 1911-1914. Hodder and Stoughton, London.
Mawson, D (1932). ‘The B.A.N.Z. Antarctic Research Expedition, 1929-31’. Geographical Journal 80: 2, 101-131.
Mawson, D (2010). The home of the blizzard: An Australian hero’s classic tale of Antarctic discovery and adventure. Wakefield Press.
Mawson Antarctic Collection, University of Adelaide (1996). Sir Douglas Mawson: the story of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition (1911-1914).
Mc Ewin, E (2008). An Antarctic Affair. East Street Publications.
McGregor, A (1998). Mawson’s Huts: an Antarctic Expedition Journal. Hale and Iremonger.
McLean, A (2010). The Adelie Blizzard: Mawson’s forgotten newspaper. State Library of South Australia.
Moyes, JL (1996). Exploring the Antarctic with Mawson and the men of the 1911-1914 expedition. RSL Leisure Living Ltd, NSW.
Myers, D (1996). ‘Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-1914: a guide to the collection of papers volumes 1-18’ (Mitchell Library, State Library of New South Wales).
Pearson, M (1992). ‘Expedition huts in Antarctica: 1899-1917’. Polar Record 28, 167: 261-276.
Pearson, M (2004). ‘Artefact or rubbish-a dilemma for Antarctic managers’. In: Barr and Chaplin (op cit): 39-43.
Price, AG (1962). The Winning of Australian Antarctica: Mawson’s B.A.N.Z.A.R.E. voyages, 1929-31, based on the Mawson papers. Angus and Robertson, Sydney.
Riffenburgh, B (2008). Racing with death: Douglas Mawson – Antarctic explorer. Bloomsbury Publishing, London.
Riffenburgh, B (2010). Douglas Mawson. Scott Polar Research Institute.
Riffenburgh, B (2011). Aurora: Douglas Mawson and the Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-14. Erskine Press.
Roura, R (2011). The Footprint of Polar Tourism: Tourist behaviour at cultural heritage sites in Antarctica and Svalbard. Groningen: University of Groningen.
Routledge, Y and Pharaoh, M (1996). Douglas Mawson: explorer, scientist (in conjunction with South Australian Museum exhibition).
Senatore, M X (2020). “Things in Antarctica: An archaeological perspective.” The Polar Journal 10, 2: 397-419.
Taylor, SGR and Gale, I (2011). Antarctic diary. Irene Gale.
United Kingdom and Australia, (2024). ‘Assessing the risk of climate change impacts on Antarctic heritage values: an update on progress’, Information Paper no. 88, Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting 46, Kochi, India.
Wheeler, B (1993). The Meanings of Sir Douglas Mawson’s Antarctic Objects Collections, Honours Thesis, University of Canberra.
Wishart, Elspeth (2020). Ensuring Antarctic science heritage collections are here for the future. Proceedings of the 2018 Australia ICOMOS Under the Microscope - Exploring Science Heritage Symposium.
Heritage Management Publications
Australia ICOMOS (2013). The Burra Charter (The Australia ICOMOS Charter for Places of Cultural Significance).
Australian Heritage Commission (1990). Criteria for the Register of the National Estate: Application Guidelines.
Department of the Environment and Heritage (2005). Heritage Strategy: a strategy for managing places owned or controlled by the Department to protect and conserve their Commonwealth Heritage values.
Department of the Environment and Heritage (2006). Management Plans for Places on the Commonwealth Heritage List: A guide for Commonwealth agencies.
Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts (2008). Working Together: Managing National Heritage Places.
Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts (2008) Working Together: Managing Commonwealth Heritage Places.
Hughes, J (1991). ‘Conservation in Context: artefact and place’. Historic Environment VIII: 1 and 2, 19-24.
Hughes, J (1992). ‘Mawson’s Antarctic huts and tourism: a case for on-site preservation’. Polar Record 28 (164): 37-42.
International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) (2022). Antarctic Archaeological Guidelines.
Kerr, J (1992). The Conservation Plan: A guide to the preparation of conservation plans for places of European cultural significance (for the National Trust of Australia).
Lazer, E (2007). ‘Mawson’s Garbage’. Aurora (ANARE Club Journal) 26 (3): 5-7.
.
Marquis-Kyle, P and Walker, M (2004). The Illustrated Burra Charter: Good Practice for Heritage Places. ICOMOS Australia.
Pearson, M and Marshall, D (2006). ‘Study of the condition and integrity of historic heritage places for the 2006 State of Environment Report’ (for the Department of Environment and Heritage) Productivity Commission (2006). Conservation of Australia’s Historic Heritage Places (Report No. 37).
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2022). Guidance and Toolkit for Impact Assessments in a World Heritage Context.
Site Management Plans, Reports and Policy Proposals
In chronological order:
Humphreys, AE and Lugg DJ (1974). Report on Visit to Cape Denison (Antarctic Division Technical Memo No. 24).
Nisbet, JS (1976). Restoration of Mawson’s Hut: Cape Denison, Commonwealth Bay (Antarctic Division Technical Memo No. 59).
Ledingham, R et al (1978). Commonwealth Bay Report (Antarctic Division Technical Memo No. 69).
Nisbet, JS (1978). Proposed Restoration of Mawson’s Hut Commonwealth Bay – Year 2 (Antarctic Division Technical Memo No. 83).
Blunt, W (ed) (1985). Project Blizzard 1984-1985 Expedition: Preliminary Report and Recommendations.
Blunt, W (1985b). Report on the Repatriation to Australia of the Mertz-Ninnis Memorial Plaque and Proclamation Plaque from Commonwealth Bay, Antarctica (for Project Blizzard).
Burch, B (2008). ‘Conserving Australia’s Antarctic heritage: the conservation of Mawson’s Huts. Proposed works 2007-11’. ANARE Club Journal, 27(4):20-21.
Thornton, M and Blunt, W (1985). Project Blizzard 1984-85: The Conservation of Sir Douglas Mawson’s Hut, Commonwealth Bay, Antarctica: a conservation plan (for the Australian Heritage Commission).
Lazer, E (1985). Recommendations for future archaeological and conservation work at the site associated with Mawson’s Hut Commonwealth Bay Antarctica. Unpublished report to the Australian Heritage Commission and the Antarctic Division, Department of Science.
Chester, J (1986). Going to Extremes: Project Blizzard and Australia’s Antarctic Heritage. Doubleday Australia Pty Ltd, Sydney.
McGowan, A (1987). ‘Archaeology from the Ice: excavation methods in a frozen hut’, Australian Historical Archaeology, 5: 49-53.
Marshall, D (1987). Mawson’s Huts – Commonwealth Bay: Structural and Materials Performance (Report to Antarctic Historic Sites and Monuments Advisory Committee, Australian Antarctic Division).
Allom Lovell Marquis Kyle Architects (1988). Mawson’s Huts, Antarctica: Statement of Significance (for Department of Science).
Blunt, W (1991). Mawson’s Huts Antarctica (Masters thesis, University of New South Wales).
Hughes, J (1991). The problems of preservation in a polar climate: the conservation of Sir Douglas Mawson’s huts at Commonwealth Bay, Antarctica. AICCM Bulletin vol. 14, No. 3-4, Dec. 1988. p. 1-31.
Pearson, M (1993). Mawson’s Huts Historic Site Conservation Plan (for Mawson’s Huts Conservation Committee and the Australian Antarctic Division).
Ashley, G (Godden Mackay Logan Pty Ltd) (1997). Mawson’s Huts Historic Site, Commonwealth Bay, Antarctica, Conservation Works Report (for AAP Mawson’s Huts Foundation).
Grant, A, Easther, R et al (1998). Reports on the AAP Mawson’s Huts Foundation Expedition to Cape Denison, December 1997-February 1998.
Hayman, S, Hughes, J and Lazer E (eds) (1998). Deterioration Monitoring and Tourism Management at Cape Denison (Mawson’s Huts), Australian Antarctic Territory: Report to the Australian Heritage Commission.
Godden Mackay Logan Pty Ltd (2001). Mawson’s Huts Historic Site Cape Denison Commonwealth Bay Antarctica Conservation Management Plan (for AAP Mawson’s Huts Foundation).
Easther, R et al (2001). Report of the AAP Mawson’s Huts Foundation Expedition 2000-01. (unpublished).
Patterson, D et al (2003). Mawson’s Huts Conservation Expedition 2002 Expedition Reports. (unpublished).
Bugg, T (2005). Mawson’s Huts Conservation Expedition 2005: Field leader’s report. (unpublished).
Australian Antarctic Division (2006). Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act Referral (of 2006 conservation works).
Troppo Architects Pty Ltd (2006). Mawson Huts Historic Site: Works Plan (for Australian Antarctic Division).
Godfrey, I et al (2007). Mawson’s Huts Conservation Expedition 2006: Expedition Reports. (unpublished).
Mawson’s Huts Foundation (2002). Mawson’s Huts Conservation Expedition 2002: Field Report. (unpublished).
Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties (2009). ‘Guidelines for the Designation and Protection of Historic Sites and Monuments’, Resolution 3, ATCM XXXII - CEP XII.
Mawson’s Huts Foundation (2014). Mawson’s Huts Conservation Expedition 2013/14: Field Report. (unpublished).
Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties (2014). ‘Antarctic Specially Protected Area No. 162 (Mawson’s Huts, Cape Denison, Commonwealth Bay, George V Land, East Antarctica): Revised Management Plan’ prepared by Australia, Measure 9, ATCM XXXVII - CEP XVII.
[1] The report, prepared by Pearson and Marshall for the 2011 State of the Environment, contains the most recent set of guidelines for performing an assessment in preparation or review of a Heritage Management Plan.