(a) Australian registered aircraft of pe(a) Australian registered aircraft of performance categories A, B, or C engaged in operations conducted under a training and checking organisation approved under regulation 217 of the Civil Aviation Regulations 1988, if the operator provides Operations Manual information and certifies participating pilots for LAHSO;
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10.8.1.1 The Lateral Separation buffer is 1 NM between the possible positions of two aircraft. (ICAO PANS-ATM, Chapter 5.)
10.8.2 Application of Lateral Separation
10.8.2.1 Lateral separation may be achieved by:
(a) establishing an aircraft’s position outside the BLSP; or
(b) applying an appropriate ATS surveillance system minimum; or
(c) applying a 1 NM buffer to the track or position of an aircraft which is determined relative to a prominent topographical feature, if:
(i) the aircraft is tracking visually; and
(ii) the aircraft is not more than 10 000 ft above the topographical feature; and
(iii) it is daytime.
10.8.2.2 Entry and Exit Points must be established by:
(a) application to a BLSP of slant range and DME equipment error corrections;
(b) application of RNAV tolerances;
(c) passage over a visual fix located on the opposite side of a BLSP from the area of conflict;
(d) passage over a positive radio fix located on the opposite side of a BLSP from the area of conflict;
(e) expiration of a time calculated using an estimate for a BLSP plus or minus:
(i) 5 minutes, if the estimate for the BLSP is within 30 min of an ATD, passage over a visual fix, positive radio fix, way point or ATS surveillance system position; or
(ii) half of the longitudinal time separation minimum applicable to the aircraft.
10.8.2.3 Aircraft transiting into an airspace in which larger tolerances are applied than that being exited are taken to be separated if:
(a) the smaller separation standard exists; and
(b) the aircraft are established on flight paths that will diverge by at least 15° until the larger separation standard is established; and
(c) the aircraft are RNAV approved to AUSEP, MNPS, GPSOCEANIC, RNP10 or RNP4.
10.8.2.4 A DME-based lateral separation entry/exit point must be calculated by:
(a) determining the ground distance from the DME site to the BLSP; then
(b) if the area of conflict (or part of it) is between the BLSP and the DME site, adding the slant range correction from Table 10.8-1 to the ground distance; then
(c) applying the correction for DME equipment error from Table 10.8-2 ensuring it is applied to a position outside the area of conflict.
10.8.2.5 Where the navigation tolerance is determined with reference to ground-based navigation aids, GPS distance may be used in lieu of a co-sited DME in the steps above.
Section (a) Australian registered aircraft of pe - Manual of Standards Part 172—Air Traffic Services - (a) Australian registered aircraft of performance categories A, B, or C engaged in operations conducted under a training and checking organisation approved under regulation 217 of the Civil Aviation Regulations 1988, if the operator provides Operations Manual information and certifies participating pilots for LAHSO; | Zoe
10.8.2.6 Where the lateral separation point is less than 60 NM from, and between the area of conflict and the reference DME site, an extra 1NM must be subtracted from the DME-derived distance.
10.8.3 Navigation Tolerances
10.8.3.1 To determine the possible position of an aircraft, the following tolerance areas and range limitations must be applied.
10.8.3.2 When manual means are used for the calculation of lateral separation, the radio navaid tolerances specified below must be rounded up to the next higher half-degree.
10.8.3.3 The minimum tracking tolerance is ±1 NM.
10.8.3.4 The maximum tracking tolerance is ±30 NM in CTA and ± 50 NM in OCA.
10.8.3.6 Slant Range Error is negligible and corrections need not be applied at or below:
(a) 2,000 FT AGL at distances of 10 NM or greater from the DME site; or
(b) 4,000 FT AGL at distances of 30 NM or greater from the DME site.
Note: Where required for a particular lateral separation problem, Local Instructions may specify a lateral separation point based on a precise slant range correction for the levels concerned.
10.8.3.7 DME equipment error corrections are as follows:
10.8.3.8 The following tolerances are applicable to short range navigation aids:
Table 10.8‑3
Navigation Aid
Tolerance for Precise Plotting
Tolerance for Manual Plotting
Conditions
ILS Localiser Front Beam
± 2.4 °
± 2.5°
Within 25 NM except:Above 2,000 FT AGL, within ±5° of course line 25 NM;Below A050 30 NM;A050 and above 50 NM.
VOR radials (or TACAN)
± 5.2°
± 5.5°
Range (based on height above the navaid):Below 5,000 FT 60 NM5,000 to 9,999 FT 90 NM10,000 to 14,999 FT 120 NM15,000 to 19,999 FT 150 NMAt or above 20,000 FT 180 NM*Note: For published lateral separation diagrams that are displayed for controller reference, a maximum range of 150 NM must be used.The tolerance can be applied outside the listed range when an inbound aircraft has reported established on the VOR/TACAN.
NDB/Locator
± 6.9°
± 7°
Range as per ERSA.
DME arc
± 2.5 NM
± 2.5 NM
Includes DME equipment error.
Localiser Equivalence
± 1 NM
± 1 NM
The aircraft must be:(a) established on 1 of the following approaches to a runway:(i) Area Navigation — Global Navigation Satellite System (RNAV (GNSS));(ii) Required Navigation Performance Approach (RNP APCH);(iii) Required Navigation Performance Authorisation Required Approach (RNP AR APCH); and(b) within 25 NM of the runway threshold; and(c) at or inside the Initial Approach Fix (IAF) for the runway; and(d) aligned with the centreline of the runway.
10.8.3.9 The following circular error of position (CEP) and cross track tolerances are applicable to long range navigation systems, subject to the conditions specified:
Table 10.8-4
Tolerance
Conditions
25 NM CEP
1 Aircraft flight notification must indicate RNP10 or RNP4.2 Only useable for separation with the 25 NM CEP tolerance of another RNP10 or RNP4 aircraft.3 1 NM buffer between tolerances is not required.
14 NM CEP
1 Not useable in airspace designated OCA.2 Aircraft flight notification must indicate AUSEP, RNP10 or RNP4.
7 NM CEP
1 Not useable in airspace designated OCA.2 Aircraft flight notification must indicate GPSRNAV or GPSOCEANIC.
Expanding formula
1 Not useable in airspace designated OCA.2 Aircraft flight notification must indicate:(a) INS/IRS; and(b) AUSEP, RNP10 or RNP4.3 CEP tolerance is a circle of radius:(a) 3 NM on departure, or 4 NM at each update; and(b) expanding at a rate of 3 NM per hour since departure or update, to a maximum of 14 NM radius.4 Any lateral separation diagram so produced must be approved by the ATS provider.5 Unless informed otherwise, ATC may assume update when 1 of the following occurs:(a) aircraft passage within 180 NM of 2 DME stations for a DME/DME fix where the position lines cross at an angle between 30° and 150°;(b) aircraft passage within 25 NM of a collocated VOR/DME beacon;(c) aircraft passage over a VOR beacon at or below FL200.
± 30 NM Cross track
Aircraft flight notification must indicate:(a) INS/IRS; and(b) AUSEP, RNP10 or RNP4.
±15 NM Cross track
1 Aircraft flight notification must indicate:(a) INS/IRS; and(b) AUSEP, RNP10 or RNP4.2 The update interval (that is, the flight time since departure or a waypoint suitable for updating present position) does not exceed:(a) for aircraft equipped with single INS/IRS — 3 hours; or(b) for aircraft with 2 or more INS/IRS — 5 hours.
10.8.3.10 The following tolerances are applicable to visual tracking and position fixing:
10.8.3.11 The following miscellaneous tolerances are applicable:
Table 10.8‑5
Means of Position Fixing
Tolerance
Conditions
Navigation Training
20 NM CEP
Flight Notification specifies SAN/NAVEX or FTS/NAVEX.Allows for along track and cross-track errors.
Dead reckoning
± 12°
± 9°
Initial track guidance has been provided by NDB, VOR, or TACAN and there is no subsequent change in track.
Flight path monitoring
± 9°
1. Aircraft is observed on the ATS surveillance system to maintain track.2. Tolerance applied from the edge of a circle of 5 NM centred on the last observed position.3. When using radar, the distance from the radar site is less than 200 NM.
Section 10.9: Separation Standards—Applicable to En-route Area Navigation by Aircraft Using Inertial Navigation Systems
10.9.1 Introduction
10.9.1.1 This section is concerned with the horizontal (that is, lateral and longitudinal) separation standards to be employed by ATC in respect of aircraft equipped for en-route area navigation (RNAV) and approved for such operations.
10.9.1.2 The standards must not be applied when ATC is aware that the time since the last opportunity to update the RNAV system’s present position exceeds the limit, or after pilot advice of:
(a) navigation equipment failure; or
(b) operation of the equipment outside the approved tolerances.
10.9.2 Lateral Separation
10.9.2.2 For lateral separation the across-track tolerance to be applied is to equal the CEP of the INS/IRS-derived position plus the FTE.
10.9.2.3 The CEP is determined from the following:
(a) at departure point the INS/IRS position can be assumed to be within a circle of radius 3 NM;
(b) the INS/IRS position can be assumed to be within a circle of radius 4 NM at a designated waypoint suitable for updating inertial present position;
(c) the CEP of the INS/IRS position expands at a rate corresponding to an increase in radius of 3 NM per hour (e.g. for a groundspeed of 300KT, divergence is 1 NM per 100 NM track flown).
10.9.2.4 The FTE when the autopilot is not coupled to the INS/IRS for steering guidance is ±2 NM across track.
10.9.2.5 Within the coverage of a short-range radio navigation aid (e.g. VOR, NDB, DME) defining the route, the tolerance applicable to that aid is to be used if it is less than that of the RNAV system.
10.9.3 Longitudinal Separation
10.9.3.1 The longitudinal separation minima based on time are derived by taking the following factors into account:
(a) the along-track navigational tolerances, assumed to be:
(i) the same for each aircraft;
(ii) equal to the magnitude of the radial error of position of the least accurate navigation system; and
(iii) calculated at the end of a route section, the end being defined as either:
(A) A waypoint satisfying the parameters for updating present position; or
(B) A ‘gate-in’ waypoint marked by NDB, VOR, DME or a combination thereof, for entry into the radio-navigation air route structure; or
(C) A waypoint beyond which a larger separation standard is specified;
(b) the tolerance of each aircraft’s estimated arrival time at the next reporting point (taken as ±3 MIN);
(c) an estimation tolerance of ±2 MIN to allow for errors in the ATC’s estimation of future positions of the aircraft in conflict;
(d) a control tolerance of ±2 MIN for control factors such as communications delays, clock errors and human factors;
(e) each of these tolerances is combined by the root sum square (RSS) method; and
(f) a buffer of 3 MIN added arithmetically.
10.9.3.2 The minimum time separation between two aircraft which are neither laterally nor vertically separated, therefore, equals:
Tsep equals begin bracket square root two times square root begin bracket begin bracket d times 60 over ground speed end bracket squared plus three squared plus two squared end bracket end bracket plus three MIN,
Where:
d = magnitude of the CEP (NM) and
G/S = minimum groundspeed (KT).
10.9.3.3 10 MIN separation between aircraft flying the same or reciprocal tracks may apply within controlled airspace provided that:
(a) for aircraft equipped with single INS/IRS the average groundspeed on a route section is not less than:
(i) 240 KT in CTA/TCTA/OCA and the update interval does not exceed 3 hours; or
(ii) 330 KT in OCA and the update interval does not exceed 5 hours; and
(b) for aircraft equipped with two or more INS/IRS, the average groundspeed on a route section is not less than 240 KT and the update interval does not exceed 5 hours.
10.9.3.4 15 MIN separation between aircraft flying the same or reciprocal tracks may apply within controlled airspace provided that:
(a) for aircraft equipped with single INS/IRS, the update interval does not exceed 5 hours; and
(b) for aircraft equipped with two or more INS/IRS, the average groundspeed on a route section is not less than 240 KT and the update interval does not exceed 12 hours.
10.9.3.5 20 MIN separation between aircraft flying the same or reciprocal tracks may apply within controlled airspace provided that:
(a) for aircraft equipped with single INS/IRS, the update interval does not exceed 5 hours; and
(b) for aircraft equipped with two or more INS/IRS, the update interval does not exceed 12 hours.
10.9.4 Distance Standards
10.9.4.1 The longitudinal separation minima based on distance are derived using the following assumptions and methods:
(a) the along-track navigational tolerance of an aircraft is taken as the same as for the time standards;
(b) when “NO CLOSING SPEED” is stipulated as a condition, minor variations of 4% of TAS of each aircraft, taken as 450 KT for the initial climb and 600 KT maximum thereafter, are allowed;
(c) when separation is to be checked at “FREQUENT INTERVALS” to ensure that the minimum will not be infringed, the maximum interval between checks is taken as 15 MIN;
(d) each of these tolerances is combined by the RSS method;
(e) except in the case of the R2 (definite passing) standard, a buffer of 10 NM is added arithmetically. The distance standard, therefore, equals:
begin bracket square root two times square root begin bracket d squared plus begin bracket dc end bracket squared end bracket end bracket plus db nautical miles
where:
d = magnitude of the CEP (NM)
dc = ‘closure’ distance of each aircraft owing to TAS variation
= 3 NM for initial climb
= 6 NM for cruise, arrival and change of level
db = buffer
=10 NM (except in case of R2)
= 0 (R2 only).
10.9.4.2 The method of application of distance separation minima, together with relevant minima are contained in paragraphs 10.6.7 to 10.6.13.
10.9.5 Explanation of Derivation of Longitudinal Separation Standards
10.9.5.1 Tolerances used in the deviation of longitudinal separation standards are:
(a) initial climb:
(i) INS/IR ± 5 NM along track
(ii) DME ± 5 NM.
(b) cruise, arrival, change of level and definite passing:
(i) Single INS/IRS:
± 8.5 NM along track up to 1.5 hours
± 12.4 NM along track up to 3 hours
± 18.2 NM along track up to 5 hours
(ii) Dual INS/IRS:
± 12.9 NM along track up to 5 hours
± 27.7 NM along track up to 12 hours
(iii) DME:
± 6 NM.
For flight times exceeding 1.5 hours, INS/IRS tolerances are the largest.
10.9.5.2 The minimum time separation (Tsep) between two aircraft is given by:
Tsep equals begin bracket square root two times square root begin bracket begin bracket d times 60 over ground speed end bracket squared plus three squared plus two squared end bracket end bracket plus three MIN,
where:
d = magnitude of the CEP (NM)
G/S = minimum groundspeed (KT)
Alternatively, the equation can be expressed as:
ground speed equals 60 times d begin bracket square root begin bracket tsep minus three end bracket squared minus thirteen over two end bracket to power minus one knots
(a) 10 MIN separation (Tsep = 10 MIN):
(i) For single INS/IRS with 3 hourly updating (d = 12.4 NM)
G/S = 219 KT.
(ii) for single INS/IRS with 5 hourly updating (d = 18.2 NM)
G/S = 322 KT.
(iii) for dual INS/IRS with 5 hourly updating (d = 12.9 NM)
G/S = 228 KT.
(iv) or dual INS/IRS with 12 hourly updating (d = 27.7 NM)
G/S = 490 KT.
(b) 15 minute separation (Tsep = 15 min):
(i) for single INS/IRS with 3 hourly updating (d = 12.4 NM)
G/S = 97 KT.
(ii) for single INS/IRS with 5 hourly updating (d = 18.2 NM)
G/S = 142 KT.
(iii) for dual INS/IRS with 5 hourly updating (d = 12.9 NM)
G/S = 101 KT.
(iv) for dual INS/IRS with 12 hourly updating (d = 27.7 NM)
G/S = 216 KT.
(c) 20 minute separation (Tsep = 20 MIN):
(i) for single INS/IRS with 3 hourly updating (d = 12.4 NM)
G/S = 65 KT.
(ii) for single INS/IRS with 5 hourly updating (d = 18.2 NM)
G/S = 95 KT.
(iii) for dual INS/IRS with 5 hourly updating (d =12.9 NM)
G/S = 67 KT.
(iv) for dual INS/IRS with 12 hourly updating (d = 27.7 NM)
G/S = 145 KT.
(d) for simplicity, these minimum groundspeeds are rationalised as follows:
(i) a minimum groundspeed of 150 KT is assumed unless otherwise stated.
(ii) the situation requiring a minimum groundspeed of 490 KT is ignored.
(iii) the remaining minimum groundspeeds are rounded-up to the next multiple of 30 knot (that is, 240 and 330 KT).
10.9.5.3 The minimum distance separation (Rsep) between two aircraft is given by:
Rsep equals begin bracket square root two times square root begin bracket d squared plus begin bracket dc end bracket squared end bracket end bracket plus db nautical miles
where
d = magnitude of the CEP (NM)
dc = closure distance of each aircraft owing to TAS variation
= 3 NM for initial climb
= 6 NM for cruise, arrival and change of level
db = buffer
= 10 NM (except in case of R2)
= 0 NM (R2 only)
(a) aircraft on climb to cruising level (R1):
Rsep equals begin bracket square root two times square root five squared plus three squared end bracket plus ten nautical miles
=18 NM.
Rounded up R1 = 20 NM.
(b) definite passing (R2 and R2A):
(i) For dual INS/IRS with 5 hourly updating
Rsep equals begin bracket square root two times square root twelve point nine squared plus six squared end bracket nautical miles
= 20 NM = R2.
(ii) For dual INS/IRS with 12 hourly updating,
Rsep equals begin bracket square root two times square root twenty-seven point seven squared plus six squared end bracket nautical miles
= 40 NM = R2A.
(c) aircraft cruising, arriving or changing level (R3 and R3A):
(i) R3 = R2 + 10 NM (buffer) = 30 NM
10.9.5.4 R3A = R2A + 10 NM = 50 NM.
Section 10.10: Separation Standards—Visual
10.10.1 Application
10.10.1.1 Visual separation may be achieved:
(a) by the use of visual procedures; or
(b) by assigning visual separation responsibility to a pilot.
10.10.1.2 When applying visual separation, controllers consideration must be given to aircraft performance characteristics, particularly in relation to faster following aircraft. When necessary, corroborative evidence from the pilot of one aircraft on the relative position of another aircraft must be obtained.
10.10.1.3 ATC may assign to the pilot of 1 aircraft responsibility to maintain separation with another aircraft only if:
(a) the aircraft to be separated are operating at or below 10 000 ft; and
(b) the pilot has:
(i) reported the other aircraft in sight; and
(ii) accepted responsibility to follow, or maintain his or her own separation with, that aircraft;
10.10.1.4 Before altering the clearance of an aircraft with which visual separation has been assigned to another aircraft, the controller must ensure that visual separation can continue to be maintained.
10.10.1.5 Alternative instructions must be issued to provide separation if there is any doubt of the pilot’s ability to keep the other aircraft in sight or maintain separation.
10.10.1.6 Positive identification must be established before visual separation is provided as follows:
(a) by day:
(i) identification by type;
(ii) identification by distinguishing markings if aircraft are of the same type;
(iii) identification by observing a change of heading or altitude of one of the relevant aircraft.
(b) by night:
(i) momentarily extinguish navigation lights;
(ii) select flashing navigation lights to steady;
(iii) extinguish hazard beacon;
(iv) momentarily switch on landing lights;
(v) change heading.
10.10.1.7 Visual Separation between an aircraft and a high altitude balloon may be applied provided that:
(a) the confirmed drift of the balloon is away from the aircraft;
(b) the balloon is ascending; and
(c) the operations are being conducted during daylight.
10.10.1.8 Relevant traffic information must be passed in sufficient time and detail to enable the pilot to identify and maintain separation from the other aircraft.
10.10.1.9 In circumstances where an aircraft has been instructed to maintain separation from, but not follow, an IFR aircraft, traffic information must be issued to the IFR aircraft, including advice that responsibility for separation has been assigned to the other aircraft.
10.10.1.10 The traffic information provided must contain as much as is necessary of the following to assist the pilot in identifying the other aircraft:
(a) type, and description if unfamiliar;
(b) level;
(c) position information either by clock reference, bearing and distance, relation to a geographical point, reported position and estimate, or position in the circuit;
(d) intentions, or direction of flight.
10.10.2 Separation Using Visual Observation
10.10.2.1 When weather conditions permit, the aerodrome controller may provide separation based on visual observations as coordinated with Approach Control provided that:
(a) the aerodrome controller is in agreement and accepts responsibility for the provision of such visual control;
(b) where required, the aircraft concerned are on the aerodrome control frequency;
(c) where required, specific airspace is released to the aerodrome controller for the purpose of providing such control.
10.10.2.2 Aerodrome controllers may also separate by the use of visual observation of aircraft position and projected flight paths.
10.10.2.3 When aircraft are operating visually as aerodrome traffic ATC must issue 1 or more of the following:
(a) clearances designed to maintain separation;
(b) sequencing instructions;
(c) relevant traffic information.
10.10.2.4 Pilots must be advised of their number in the landing sequence to assist in identification of traffic.
10.10.2.5 ATC must maintain, as far as possible, a continuous visual watch to detect and determine the position, and ensure the safety of, aircraft.
10.10.3.1 Two approaching aircraft are deemed to be separated while the second approaching aircraft is on final approach beyond the view of the tower controller if, before commencing such final approach, the first approaching aircraft:
(a) has been sighted by the tower controller, there is reasonable assurance that a landing can be accomplished, and it is clear that no confliction will occur; or
(b) has reported commencing a missed approach, and is proceeding from a point and on a clearance such that separation could readily be maintained should the second approaching aircraft miss its approach.
10.10.3.2 Unless cleared at or before passing 10 NM from the aerodrome, this form of separation is not acceptable and another must be provided.
Section 10.11: Separation Standards—Miscellaneous
10.11.1 Parachute Jumping Exercise (PJE)
10.11.1.1 Separation between aircraft involved in PJE at the same drop zone is the responsibility of the pilots of the PJE aircraft. Separation between PJE aircraft and the parachutist is the sole responsibility of the pilots of the PJE aircraft.
10.11.1.2 ATC must provide traffic information to PJE aircraft, and, except in Class E or G airspace, apply separation between parachutists and non-PJE aircraft.
9.1.6.4 In Class E airspace, ATC must also provide traffic information to IFR non-PJE aircraft about PJE aircraft.
10.11.1.3 Where two or more PJE Drop Zones are located in close proximity and parachute operators have mutually agreed to accept self-separation, ATC is required to pass only traffic information to the participating operators. A participating pilot may request a separation service, but must continue to self-separate until ATC is satisfied that a separation standard has been achieved, and can be maintained. Agreements established between parachute operators to self-separate must be documented in ATS Local Instructions.
10.11.2 Limitations and Extensions – PJE
10.11.2.1 For separation purposes, ATC must base separation on the fact that the parachutist will be dropped within a 1 NM radius of the target. If an extension of this area is necessary, the pilot must advise ATS of the distance and direction this extension is required. The navigational tolerance area must be extended in the advised direction until receipt of advice that the drop is completed. These requirements should be reiterated in any briefing.
A 3Ddiagram of a cylinder of airspace with a radius of 1 NM centred on a target. The vertical dimension are from ground level extending vertically upwards.
Diagrams in both plan and 3D view of an ellipse or oval of airspace around a target with the closest edge of the ellipse/oval being 1 NM from the target and the outer edge of the expanded side being a pilot specified distance. The vertical dimension are from ground level extending vertically upwards.
10.11.2.2 Where parachutists agree to remain to one side of a defined line feature, and the target is set at least 200 M away from the closest point of the line feature, the navigational tolerance area of the parachutists may be reduced to the line feature. The line feature may only be used when the drop will occur from 10,000 FT or below, by day in VMC, and the service provider agrees to the use of the line feature. A letter of agreement between the parachute jumping group and ATS must be established.
3D Diagram of an ellipse-shaped drop zone where part of the outer limit is defined by a line feature like a river or road. The vertical dimension are from ground level extending vertically upwards. The diagram includes text stating 'target 200m from the line feature'. There is also this note: 'Parachutists will remain within 1 NM of the target on the same side of the line feature'.
10.11.2.3 The instructions described above should be issued by directly briefing the parachutists prior to the exercise. They may also be relayed to the parachutists by the PJE aircraft pilot.
10.11.2.4 Parachutists may be assigned responsibility to remain within certain limits of, and on a particular side of a geographical fix (e.g. “PARACHUTISTS REMAIN WITHIN 1 NM OF THE TARGET AND TO THE WEST OF (line feature)”).
10.11.2.5 Responsibility for separation of parachutists from another aircraft must only be assigned to the PJE aircraft.
10.11.2.6 Lateral separation may be achieved between the parachutists and the non-PJE aircraft by a requirement stipulated to the parachutists in accordance with the use of a line feature for separation, and the application of visual tracking tolerances to the aircraft.
10.11.2.7 After the parachutists have exited, and the PJE aircraft has commenced descent, only the pilot of the PJE aircraft can be assigned the responsibility for separation from other aircraft.
10.11.2.8 Visual separation between the parachutists and a non-PJE aircraft, by TWR or the PJE pilot is limited to circumstances where that aircraft is 7,000 KG or less. This accounts for wake turbulence.
10.11.2.9 When TWR is applying visual separation in the circuit area, the 7,000 KG weight limitation does not apply, so long as ATC is satisfied that the parachutists will remain safely clear of the wake turbulence.
10.11.3 High Altitude Balloons
10.11.3.1 A letter of agreement must be signed between the relevant Operations Centre and the balloon operator prior to commencement of operations, and must detail:
(a) notification procedures;
(b) communication requirements;
(c) launch and cutdown procedures; and
(d) restrictions on particular time blocks for launches due to increased RPT traffic on adjacent upper air routes.
10.11.3.2 A navigation tolerance of ±15 NM must be applied to high altitude balloons. ATC must apply a 1 NM buffer between the navigation tolerances of an aircraft and a high altitude balloon.
10.11.3.3 When plotting the predicted track of the balloon, ATC must apply a tolerance of ±15 NM radius drawn at:
(a) the departure point;
(b) the FL200 predicted position; and
(c) the FL600 predicted position.
10.11.3.4 The predicted track must be redrawn using the FL200 actual position, and must incorporate and updated track information.
10.11.4 Manned Balloon Operations
10.11.4.1 Balloons must be separated from other airspace users, and issued relevant information at all altitudes according to the classification of airspace in which the balloon is flown.
10.11.4.2 Separation requirements that apply to aircraft weighing less than 5,700 KG must also apply to balloons.
10.11.4.3 Passing traffic information on other balloons within an authorised formation is not required.
10.11.5 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV)
10.11.5.1 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles must be separated from other aircraft using the separation standards applicable to manned aircraft when:
(a) capable of presenting real time navigational information using approved navigation systems; and
(b) continuous two way communications is maintained between the operator and the ATC unit.
10.11.6 ACAS/TCAS Resolution Advisory Action
10.11.6.1 Once the aircraft has begun a manoeuvre in response to an Resolution Advisory (RA), the controller is not responsible for providing separation between the aircraft that is responding to a RA and any other aircraft, airspace, terrain or obstruction.
10.11.6.2 If an aircraft advises that it is responding to an ACAS/TCAS RA, ATC shall:
(a) not issue instructions that contradict those issued by the RA;
(b) issue safety alerts; and
(c) provide relevant traffic information as appropriate.
10.11.6.3 Responsibility for separation resumes when separation is re-established after:
(a) the responding aircraft has returned to its assigned level;
(b) the aircraft advises that the ACAS/TCAS manoeuvre is completed; or
(c) the responding aircraft has executed an alternate clearance.
10.11.7 Unspecified Operations
10.11.7.1 Separation requirements from operations for which standards have not been specified must be:
(a) distributed by NOTAM; or
(b) determined through direct liaison with the affected ATS unit.
10.11.7.2 The following buffers must be added to the parameters of the operations:
(a) 1 NM buffer to the notified geographical coordinates of the activity;
(b) 15 MIN before and after the notified time of the activity;
(c) at least 500 FT to the maximum notified altitude of the activity.
(a) for lateral extent, when applying wake turbulence separation, directly behind means that an aircraft is operating within 760 m of the flight path of the aircraft in front of it.
(b) intermediate part — ICAO PANS-ATM, of a runway, including of a parallel runway separated from the runway by less than 760 m, means a point more than 150 m after the take-off commencement point of the preceding aircraft using the runway or the parallel runway.
10.12.1.2 In addition to the categories of aircraft specified in PANS-ATM, the Airbus A380 is taken to constitute the SUPER wake turbulence category of aircraft.
10.12.2 Wake Turbulence Separation Minima
10.12.2.1 Time-based wake turbulence separation minima
10.12.3.1 Subject to subsection 10.12.3.3, ATC must apply an appropriate wake turbulence separation minimum in all controlled airspace when an aircraft is:
(a) operating directly behind another aircraft’s flight path; and
(b) at the same level as the other aircraft, or less than 1 000 ft below it.
10.12.3.2 Subject to subsection 10.12.3.3, ATC must apply appropriate wake turbulence separation minima to aerodrome traffic when:
(a) both aircraft are using the same runway for take-off or for landing; or
(b) an aircraft taking-off behind a landing heavier wake turbulence category aircraft is expected to become airborne before the touchdown point of the landing aircraft; or
(c) an aircraft is taking-off and a preceding departing aircraft on a crossing runway has rotated at or before the runway intersection; or
(d) an aircraft is landing and could still be airborne at the intersection of a crossing runway and a preceding departing aircraft on that crossing runway has rotated at or before the intersection; or
(e) a LIGHT aircraft during its landing run will cross the intersection of a crossing runway behind a departing HEAVY aircraft on that crossing runway which has rotated at or before the intersection; or
(f) using parallel runways for approach and departures when the runways are separated by less than 760 m; or
(g) an aircraft is using the opposite direction runway for take-off or landing to a heavier category aircraft that has taken off or executed a missed approach.
10.12.3.3 ATC is not required to apply wake turbulence separation in the following situations:
(a) when a MEDIUM fixed-wing aircraft of less than 25 000 kg MTOW precedes a LIGHT aircraft;
(b) when an aircraft is landing behind another aircraft that is taking-off on the same runway;
(c) subject to 10.12.3.4, if a pilot has initiated a waiver of the relevant departure wake turbulence separation minimum;
(d) when a VFR aircraft is in flight and is:
(i) operating directly behind a preceding HEAVY or MEDIUM aircraft; or
(ii) landing on the same runway as a preceding HEAVY or MEDIUM aircraft; or
(iii) landing on a parallel runway separated by less than 760 m from the runway of a preceding HEAVY or MEDIUM aircraft;
(e) when an IFR aircraft is in flight and the pilot has:
(i) reported the preceding aircraft in sight; and
(ii) accepted responsibility to follow, or maintain his or her own separation with, that aircraft.
Note: For paragraphs (d) and (e), the pilot in command of the aircraft is responsible for ensuring that the spacing from a preceding aircraft of a heavier wake turbulence category is acceptable. If it is determined that additional spacing is required, the flight crew may inform ATC accordingly, stating their requirements.
10.12.3.4 For a LIGHT or MEDIUM aircraft, ATC must not waive the relevant wake turbulence separation minimum if the aircraft is taking-off after a HEAVY or SUPER aircraft has:
(a) used the same runway in the same or reciprocal direction; and
(b) taken-off or made a low or missed approach.
10.12.3.5 ATC must issue a wake turbulence caution to the pilot of an aircraft if:
(a) less than the applicable wake turbulence separation minima may exist; or
(b) the applied wake turbulence separation minima may be infringed; or
(c) the pilot has waived the relevant departure wake turbulence separation requirement; or
(d) wake turbulence separation is not provided because of paragraph 10.12.3.3 (d) or (e), and wake turbulence may have an adverse effect on the aircraft.
10.12.3.6 In applying wake turbulence separation minima, air traffic controllers must:
(a) when using a time minimum between aircraft taking-off, ensure that a following aircraft does not become airborne until the specified time interval has elapsed since the leading aircraft became airborne;
(b) when using a time minimum between an aircraft executing a missed approach and the following aircraft taking-off, not issue the take-off clearance until the specified time interval has elapsed since the preceding aircraft crossed the threshold or initiated the missed approach (whichever occurs later);
(c) when using an ATS surveillance system minimum between aircraft taking off, ensure that the appropriate separation minimum exists between the aircraft at or before the time the following aircraft becomes airborne;
(d) when aircraft are using the same runway, ensure that the landing minimum will exist at the time the leading aircraft is over the landing threshold;
(e) when crossing runways are in use, apply the full length minima and ensure that the required separation exists at the intersection.
10.12.3.7 If the required wake turbulence separation can be determined by distance using an aircraft report or ATS surveillance system, ATC is not required to apply the relevant time minimum:
(a) between arriving aircraft; or
(b) unless the aircraft following will commence take-off from an intermediate point — between departing aircraft.
Note Intermediate point is explained in subsection 10.12.1.
10.12.3.8 Due to the wake turbulence characteristics of the B757 and H47, for the purpose of wake turbulence separation, these aircraft must be classified as a HEAVY aircraft if leading and as a MEDIUM aircraft if following.
Section 10.13: Separation Standards—Aerodrome
10.13.1 Taxiing and Runway Standards
10.13.1.1 The separation of aircraft taxiing on the manoeuvring area is a joint pilot and controller responsibility.
10.13.1.2 When providing runway separation, the wake turbulence standards must be applied in conjunction with the runway standards.
10.13.1.3 Runway separation standards apply equally to runway operations or to a strip having a single landing and take-off path.
10.13.1.4 When take-off or landing separation is based on the position of a preceding landing or taxiing aircraft and visual determination is limited, particularly at night or in reduced visibility, by poor azimuth resolution or other factors, the pilot of that aircraft must be instructed to report when the aircraft has:
(a) crossed and is clear of a runway intersection; or
(b) stopped short of a runway strip; or
(c) vacated the runway.
10.13.1.5 As local circumstances such as aerodrome configuration and day/night visibility conditions may restrict controller visibility, unit Instructions must specify when mandatory confirmation of position is required from the pilot.
10.13.2 Arriving Aircraft and an Aircraft Taking Off
10.13.2.1 Lateral separation is considered to exist between an arriving aircraft that subsequently commenced final approach, and a departing aircraft that has been cleared on a segregated flight path.
10.13.2.2 For this purpose, a segregated flight path is considered to exist when the departing aircraft will not be manoeuvring within 45 degrees either side of the reciprocal of the final approach path while the arriving aircraft is on the final approach track.
10.13.2.3 Except as specified in subsections 10.13.2.4 and 10.13.2.5, take-offs must not be permitted after an arriving aircraft has commenced final approach until:
(a) it is sighted by the tower controller and reasonable assurance exists that a landing can be accomplished; or
(b) separation standards can be applied between an arriving aircraft which misses its approach and an aircraft desiring take-off clearance.
10.13.2.4 When the take-off direction differs by at least 45 degrees from the reciprocal of a straight-in final approach, a departing aircraft may commence take-off before an arriving aircraft on final approach passes a point 5 NM from the landing threshold as determined by 1 of the following:
(a) ATS surveillance system;
(b) GNSS report;
(c) DME report adjusted for the distance between the landing threshold in use and the DME site.
10.13.2.5 In the application of this standard, the controller must estimate that the required separation will exist at the time the take-off is commenced, and ATS surveillance system observation or DME report must be used to confirm that separation is not infringed.
10.13.2.6 For subsections 10.13.2.3 and 10.13.2.4, when an ATS surveillance system suitable for 3 NM separation is used to determine aircraft position, the controller must ensure that an arriving aircraft is not closer than 3 NM from the landing threshold at the time a departing aircraft:
(a) commences take-off on the runway to be used by the landing aircraft; or
(b) crosses the intersection of the runway to be used by the landing aircraft.
10.13.3 Simultaneous Parallel Operations
10.13.3.1 Use by fixed wing aircraft of more than one landing/take-off path in the same direction on the one aerodrome is permissible if, the paths proposed to be used are treated as one runway for separation purposes.
10.13.3.2 The suitability of a landing area for simultaneous parallel landings or take-offs by fixed wing aircraft and the associated control procedures must be established in consultation with CASA.
10.13.4 Training Approaches
10.13.4.1 If an aircraft, person or vehicle within the runway strip on a controlled aerodrome is likely to be overflown by an aircraft making a training approach, the controller must:
(a) instruct the training aircraft not to descend below:
(i) the relevant minimum altitude for the approach; or
(ii) for a practice visual approach — not below 300 ft AGL; and
(b) pass traffic information to the other aircraft before it enters the flight path over which the approaching aircraft will fly; and
(c) pass traffic information to persons, including the drivers of vehicles, operating within the runway strip of the runway to be overflown by the aircraft, other than persons operating within the works area associated with a displaced threshold.
10.13.5 Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO)
10.13.5.1 Notwithstanding aerodrome separation standards, operations by an aircraft landing on one runway and another aircraft either taking off or landing simultaneously on a crossing runway may be permitted subject to the provisions of LAHSO.
10.13.5.2 LAHSO are to be considered a ‘dependent’ procedure, with participating aircraft classified as either:
(a) Active: when an aircraft is issued a hold short requirement and is alerted about traffic on a crossing runway; or
(b) Passive: when an aircraft has unrestricted use of the full runway length and is alerted about traffic on a crossing runway.
10.13.5.3 Active participation in LAHSO is available only to pilots of aircraft in the following categories:
(a) Australian registered aircraft of performance categories A, B, or C engaged in operations conducted under a training and checking organisation approved under regulation 217 of the Civil Aviation Regulations 1988, if the operator provides Operations Manual information and certifies participating pilots for LAHSO;
(b) Australian registered aircraft of performance category A, B, or C, if the pilot holds a log book endorsement for LAHSO;
(c) Australian military aircraft in performance categories A, B, or C;
(d) foreign military aircraft in performance categories A, B, or C, if there is a letter of agreement between the relevant military authority and the ATS provider;
(e) Australian registered aircraft approved in writing by CASA.
10.13.5.4 Passive participation in LAHSO is available to pilots of aircraft in the following categories:
(a) Australian civil and military aircraft of performance category A, B and C at pilot discretion;
(b) RAAF Hawk, F111 and FA18 aircraft;
(c) foreign military aircraft, if there is a letter of agreement, between the relevant military authority and the ATS provider, that excludes foreign military aircraft of performance category D.
10.13.5.5 Pilots who at the time expect and elect to participate actively in LAHSO, must on receipt of an ATIS broadcast that advises LAHSO in progress, confirm ability to participate by advising “LAHSO APPROVED” to the last en-route ATS provider prior to descent into the destination terminal area or on initial contact with Tower or Approach.
10.13.5.6 Pilots of civil aircraft operating under a flight number as advised in flight notification, and pilots of Australian military aircraft, may omit the words “LAHSO APPROVED” as required above. ATC may sequence these aircraft for LAHSO unless the pilot expressly states an intention not to participate.
10.13.5.7 Notwithstanding the provisions above, pilots of foreign registered civil aircraft and of Australian registered aircraft operating under foreign air carrier flight numbers must not be permitted to participate actively or passively in LAHSO.
10.13.5.8 LAHSO must only be permitted as follows:
(a) runways are equipped with standard LAHSO signs, lights and runway markings as specified in AIP Aerodromes (AD);
(b) the ceiling is not less than 1,000 FT and visibility is not less than 5,000 M;
(c) ‘active’ participation is restricted to runways where the crosswind component including gusts does not exceed 20 KT;
(d) simultaneous landings may be permitted by day and night;
(e) a simultaneous take-off and landing is only permitted by day;
(f) a “HOLD SHORT” requirement must not be given when low level wind shear of intensity greater than LIGHT is reported;
(g) when the runway is damp or wet, a “HOLD SHORT” requirement must only be issued if the braking characteristics are assessed as GOOD by a pilot of an aircraft in the same performance category.
10.13.5.9 In the application of LAHSO, controllers must:
(a) ensure that the published distance from the landing threshold to the hold short point of the crossing runway is adequate for the performance category of the aircraft as detailed in the Landing Distance Required (LDR) table below;
(b) alert aircraft that land and hold short runway operations are in progress by notification on the ATIS;
(c) issue directed traffic information to both aircraft participating in the procedure;
(d) ensure readback of a hold short requirement;
(e) withhold issuing a take-off clearance to a departing aircraft while another aircraft is landing on a crossing runway having been issued with a duly acknowledged hold short requirement, until such time that in the opinion of the controller, there is no possibility that both aircraft could occupy the intersection at the same time should the landing aircraft subsequently fail to hold short.
10.13.5.10 When circumstances warrant, controllers may require a pilot issued with a hold short requirement to report “(callsign) HOLDING SHORT”.
10.13.5.11 When an issued hold short instruction no longer applies, pilots must be advised that “FULL RUNWAY LENGTH NOW AVAILABLE”.
10.13.5.12 When a landing aircraft has been issued with requirements to hold short of a crossing runway strip, aircraft and vehicles may be approved to cross the ‘non operational’ end of the runway in the following circumstances:
(a) by day;
(b) at the discretion of, and under the jurisdiction of the aerodrome controller;
(c) traffic information must be provided.
10.13.6 Landing Distance Required (LDR) for LAHSO
10.13.6.1 ATC may sequence participating aircraft for LAHSO regardless of category of aircraft if the controller is aware that the aircraft may be able to land within the landing distance available (LDA). In all circumstances, the pilot is responsible for determining that the LDA is sufficient in the prevailing conditions. ATC may sequence non-jet Category B aircraft below 5,700 KG MTOW for LAHSO using Category A LDRs.
10.13.6.2 The LDR table below shows the approved minimum LDR for an aircraft Performance Category (PC) in the conditions specified and must be used as a guide for ATC when determining whether an aircraft can land in the available runway distance while participating in LAHSO.
10.13.6.3 Reduced LDRs, as determined by CASA, may be applied provided a Letter of Agreement between the ATS Provider/Department of Defence and an aircraft operator that has been approved by the local CASA District Office. These LoAs must be promulgated in Local Instructions.
10.13.7.1 A Letter of Agreement between the relevant ATS provider and any foreign military authority must be raised by the ATS unit following an initial request from the relevant military authority.
10.13.7.2 The Letter of Agreement must include, but is not limited to, the following items:
(a) the specific aerodrome at which the Agreement is valid;
(b) the ATC service provider bound by the Agreement;
(c) foreign military authority bound by the Agreement;
(d) a validity period;
(e) the LAHSO procedures that are the subject of the Agreement;
(f) a statement authorising active and/or passive participation by pilots of specified aircraft types and categories.