Part Appendix 2: Evaluation of progress towar - Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (National Recovery Plan for the Wollemi Pine (Wollemia nobilis)) Instrument 2025 - Appendix 2: Evaluation of progress towards objectives from previous recovery plan | Zoe
Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (National Recovery Plan for the Wollemi Pine (Wollemia nobilis)) Instrument 2025
Appendix 2: Evaluation of progress towarAppendix 2: Evaluation of progress towards objectives from previous recovery plan
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Appendix 1: Summary of research into the Wollemi Pine
Research into the Wollemi Pine has been ongoing since its discovery in 1994. Research has been conducted both in the wild and using ex situ material. Major themes of research and key publications, in approximate order of occurrence, are described below. Publications particularly relevant to the conservation management of the Wollemi Pine are highlighted in bold font.
Wollemi pine anatomy and morphology:
i. Formal species circumscription (Jones et al. 1995).
Branch abscission. The Wollemi Pine has a very unusual branch connection which is associated with branch abscission (Burrows et al. 2007; Heady et al. 2008).
Branching and vasculature of the Wollemi Pine (Tomlinson & Murch 2009).
Debate on axillary meristems (Burrows et al. 2003, Tomlinson and Huggett 2011, 2012).
iv. Wood anatomy (Heady et al. 2000)
Habitat:
i. Vegetation associated with the Wollemi Pine (Benson and Allen 2007).
Phylogeny:
i. Context within Araucariaceae (Gilmore and Hill 1997).
ii. Revised by Stefanovic et al. (1998).
iii. Revised by Setoguchi et al. (1998).
iv. Revised by Liu et al. (2009).
v. Revised by Escapa and Catalano (2013)
Fossil evidence linked to the Wollemi Pine:
i. Pollen and palynology (Macphail et al. 1995; Hill 1996, Dettmann & Jarzen 2000), and links between Dilwynites fossil pollen and Araucariaceae other than Wollemia (Macphail et al. 2013; Macphail & Carpenter 2014; Seyfullah et al. 2023).
ii. Comparison to Creteacous plant fossils (Chambers et al. 1998).
iii. Macrofossils (Pole 2008).
Recruitment, reproduction and seed ecology:
i. Reproductive biology and ecology and early plant growth (Offord et al. 1999).
ii. Seed ecology and germination requirements (Offord & Meagher 2001).
iii. Inter-annual variation in cone production (Zimmer et al. 2015a).
iv. Population structure and recruitment limitation (Zimmer et al. 2014).
Tree rings/dendrochronology:
i. Pilot study on five trees by Banks (2002).
ii. Follow-up study by Baker and Simkin (2010) who highlight the potential for chronologies of <300 years, and the challenges associated with missing rings and ring wedging.
Mycorrhizae, soil microbiota, endophytes and soil pathogens:
i. Pestalotiopsis guepinii – a taxol producing endophyte of the Wollemi Pine (Strobel et al. 1997).
ii. Mycorrhizae of the Wollemi Pine (McGee et al 1999).
iii. Soil microbiota associated with the Wollemi Pine (Rigg et al. 2016a; Rigg et al. 2016b).
iv. The importance of Phytophthora cinnamomi and Botryosphaeria as pathogens of the Wollemi Pine (Bullock et al. 2000).
v. Phytophthora multivora as a pathogen of the Wollemi Pine (Puno et al. 2015).
Genetic variation in Wollemi Pine:
i. Extremely low genetic variation of the Wollemi Pine (Peakall et al. 2003).
ii. Chloroplast genome of the Wollemi Pine (Yap et al. 2015).
iii. Chloroplast DNA confirms low genetic variation (Greenfield et al. 2016).
iv. The genome of the Wollemi Pine (Stevenson et al. 2023 preprint).
Physiological tolerances of the Wollemi Pine, and predictions for response to changing climate:
i. Response to high temperatures (Offord 2011).
ii. Response to CO2 (Haworth et al. 2011).
iii. Response to temperature and CO2 (Lewis et al. 2015).
iv. Drought intolerance (Zimmer et al. 2015b).
v. Resprouting response to fire and litter flammability (Zimmer et al. 2015c).
Propagation and cultivation of the Wollemi Pine:
i. Propagation of juvenile orthotropic shoots (Fensom and Offord 1998).
ii. Wollemi Pine growth responses to soil pH and light (Offord et al. 2014).
iii. Factors affecting establishment and growth in cultivation around the globe (Offord & Zimmer 2023).
Translocation:
i. Establishment of a pilot translocation site (Zimmer et al. 2016).
ii. Establishment of Wollemi Pine microbial communities in a translocated stand (Rigg et al. 2017).
Other:
i. Essential oil of Wollemi Pine (Brophy et al. 2000).
Appendix 2: Evaluation of progress towards objectives from previous recovery plan
Recovery objective 1: Protect and maintain wild sites and their habitat from threatening processes in the long term
Performance criterion 10.1.1: The known stands of the Wollemi Pine are protected from damage by visitation to the stands. Enforcement of area closures, under the NPW Act Land Management Regulations and regulations in accordance with critical habitat occur.
Access to the wild Wollemi Pine stands continues to be highly restricted for both NSW DCCEEW staff and the public to minimise the risk to the remaining plants and their habitat. It is illegal to visit the Wollemi Pine wild population without authorisation from NPWS. The Wollemi Pine Access Strategy outlines the protocols for site access and restricts access only to essential personnel authorised by NSW DCCEEW. These measures have been further codified in the Wollemi National Park Plan of Management (2001), the Wollemi National Park Fire Management Plan (2006) and the Wollemi Pine Conservation Action Plan (2021).
Authorised visits to the wild stands for research purposes have also been monitored and approved by the Wollemi Pine Recovery Team. Only essential on-site work has been authorised. Wherever possible, use of plant material from the off-site populations at the ABGMA and the BMBGMT is prioritised over visits to the wild population. A registry of all approved site visits is maintained by NPWS. Illegal visitation has been minimal and on-ground site surveillance is continuing.
The declaration of Critical Habitat for the Wollemi Pine was made in 2007 under the NSW Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995 (TSC Act) (now repealed). The identification report for the declaration of Critical Habitat for the Wollemi Pine also included regulations in accordance with Section 51 of the TSC Act to prohibit access to the critical habitat area and penalties for failure to comply with a direction given by a designated officer to leave the critical habitat area. Upon the repeal of the TSC Act, the Critical Habitat for the Wollemi Pine became an AOBV under the BC Act. The regulations to prohibit access to the declared area were substantially replicated in the Biodiversity Conservation Regulation 2017.
The Wollemi Pine was declared an AIS under the NPW Act in 2021 and a CAP was developed. The activities described in the Wollemi Pine CAP include “Implement law enforcement and compliance action to prevent unauthorised access, to the extent practicable” and “Ensure all authorised access occurs in accordance with risk mitigation protocols which avoid significant impacts arising from trampling of plants, compaction and erosion of soils and the introduction and spread of pathogens.”
Performance criterion 10.1.2 The known stands of the Wollemi Pine are protected from the detrimental impacts of pathogens or other threats to plant health.
Phytophthora cinnamomi and P. multivora have been detected in Stand 1. The sources of introduction are unknown but are suspected to be the result of unauthorised visitation. Strict quarantine measures (including the Site Hygiene Protocol) have been, and will continue to be, enforced during all authorised site visits. The Site Hygiene Protocol has been updated and expanded since the previous recovery plan.
Performance criterion 10.1.3 A monitoring program is designed and implemented, and treatments are investigated and used, leading to the extent of P. cinnamomi in the site being controlled, further infections being halted and infected trees being effectively treated.
Monitoring of the Phytophthora spp. infection in Stand 1 is ongoing. Repeated soil testing has revealed the detectability of the pathogens along fixed transects varies over time. It is noted that absences may sometimes be detection failure, rather than true absences. Ridomil fungicide treatments have been discontinued following review of the wider environmental impacts associated with the application of the product and limited suppression success.
Wollemi Pine health monitoring is also ongoing, particularly around trees which have shown symptoms of Phytophthora infection. A non-destructive method of using phosphonate to treat Phytophthora infection has been developed based on glasshouse trials but has yet to be applied and tested on wild trees. The method involves painting phosphonate solution in conjunction with a penetrant onto the bark tissue, which allows chemical uptake by the tree. This reduces disease severity in infected trees and protects healthy trees from infection. Because the introduced chemical triggers energy-demanding defence mechanisms within treated trees, the treatment is only to be applied on trees that are free of, or have recovered from, severe stress ,such as extreme environmental conditions or fire damage.
Performance criterion 10.1.4 The stands of the Wollemi Pines are protected from the detrimental impacts of pollution, flooding, weed infestation, sedimentation and other adverse changes to the hydrology of the catchment wild population.
The wild Wollemi Pine population has been protected from pollution and weed infestation. Several flood events have occurred since the last recovery plan with no major impacts on the population or its habitat. Control of invasive weeds within the catchment is undertaken on a routine basis.
Performance criterion 10.1.5 The risk of damage to Wollemi Pine stands from wildfire and bushfire management activities will be minimised.
A Wollemi Pine Fire Management Strategy (FMS) was prepared in 2022 as a requirement of the CAP. Proposed actions under the FMS include continuation of the Rapid Aerial Response Team program for rapid suppression of fires within the Wollemi Pine catchment, in-grove protections in response to anticipated catastrophic fire conditions, hazard reduction burning at a landscape scale to limit bushfire spread and intensity, and inclusion of species experts in fire incident management teams.
Performance criterion 10.1.6 Guidelines for translocation of Wollemi Pine are prepared.
Guidelines for translocation were prepared as part of the 2019 translocations in Wollemi National Park. These will be updated as part of a review of the translocation program.
Performance criterion 10.1.7 Critical Habitat and associated regulations are declared and enforced as required.
A 5,000 hectare area of Wollemi National Park was declared as an AIS in 2021, supporting the declaration of the habitat of the Wollemi Pine as Critical Habitat in December 2007 under the TSC Act. Although the TSC Act has been repealed, the Critical Habitat for the Wollemi Pine became an AOBV upon enactment of the BC Act. The CAP describes the conservation activities required to control, abate or mitigate key risks to the environmental values of the AIS, and maintain, restore and remediate the environmental values of the AIS.
Recovery objective 2: Understand the biology of Wollemi Pine and associated species in its natural habitat to inform conservation of the species and its habitat
Performance criterion 10.2.1 Aspects of the stand dynamics of the Wollemi Pine are documented and the age structures of the standing trunks in known stands are estimated. Ecological data gained is used to modify the management program outlined in Section 10.1 and assists in the tasks outlined in Section 10.3 and 10.4.
The stand dynamics of the Wollemi Pine were documented in a peer reviewed scientific paper, which described evidence for the Wollemi Pine having a recruitment strategy of maintaining a juvenile bank (Zimmer et al. 2014). This study highlighted the rarity of recruitment events, and hence the importance of protecting all seedlings and juveniles. Size structures of the standing trunks (diameters at breast height) were documented in 2003 and 2013. Growth rates have not yet been reliably estimated; hence, ages have not been estimated.
Monitoring has been ongoing at the wild stands since 1995. At Stand 1, each individual seedling, juvenile and mature tree stem greater than or equal to 2 cm DBH was tagged. Results of pre-fire monitoring of seedling and juvenile growth and survival at Stand 1 are presented in Zimmer et al. (2014). The majority of seedlings were killed in the 2019–20 fire and tags on individual coppice stems at Site 1 were lost. However, since 2020, fire-resistant tags have been applied to all stems greater than or equal to 2 m tall on all accessible juvenile and mature trees across all four wild sites, the relative positions of stems on individual trees mapped, and stem height, DBH and reproductive status recorded (Mackenzie, Clarke and Auld, unpubl. data). Canopy photography is also utilised to monitor tree health and major changes in canopy cover and structure.
Performance criterion 10.2.2 The fire history of the sites and impact of fire, rock-fall and wind shake on Wollemi Pines is examined. Key gap forming processes are identified. This information is used to modify existing management practices outlined under Section 10.1.
Field surveys of the wild Wollemi Pine population after the 2019–20 bushfires revealed that most adult trees survived the fires with their upper canopies intact (Mackenzie et al. 2021). Of the fire-affected trees greater than or equal to 2 m tall, two-thirds suffered partial canopy loss and one-third (predominantly juvenile trees) were completely top-killed (Mackenzie et al. unpubl. data). Of these top-killed individuals, approximately one-third were killed outright with the remainder (c. 20% of the post-fire population) reduced to vulnerable basal resprouts (Mackenzie et al. unpubl. data). The pre-fire bank of seedlings and smaller juveniles less than 2m tall has been 92–95% eliminated with only 4–7% of pre-fire individuals successfully resprouting (Mackenzie et al. unpubl. data). However, the juvenile bank is expected to re-establish from seed over the next 20-30 years (Mackenzie et al. 2021).
Earlier experimental studies of the impact of fire (under nursery conditions) on Wollemi Pines and three co-dominant rainforest angiosperms found that that cultivated cuttings of all four study species had the capacity to resprout after a single, low intensity fire.
There have been no further studies into rock fall or windshake.
Field observations suggest fire, rock fall and wind are likely to be the main canopy gap forming processes, along with natural senescence of dominant trees.
Performance criterion 10.2.3 Qualified individual/s are found to initiate a study/studies to increase understanding of evolutionary history of Wollemi Pine.
The evolutionary history of the Wollemi Pine has been well studied, including by Gilmore and Hill (1997), Stefanovic et al. (1998), Setoguchi et al. (1998), Liu et al. (2009) and Escapa & Catalano (2013).
Performance criterion 10.2.4 New techniques for the analysis of population genetics are investigated and, where appropriate, applied.
The chloroplast genome of the Wollemi Pine has been sequenced (Yap et al. 2015). Whole-chloroplast analysis has revealed low but detectable genetic diversity (Greenfield et al. 2016). More refined population genetic studies, based on reduced representation genome sequencing approaches are currently in progress, but preliminary analyses have detected low-level variation within and between subpopulations (Bragg et al. unpubl., Stevenson et al. 2023 preprint). These data are being used to guide the development of ex situ collections and translocated populations to maximize their genetic diversity (Mackenzie et al. 2021).
Performance criterion 10.2.5 Embryology and cone production cycles are better understood providing information for establishing evolutionary relationships within Araucariaceae and enabling estimation of seed production in different years. Knowledge gained is used to modify the management program outlines in Section 10.1.
Inter-annual variation in cone production was described by Zimmer et al. (2015a). Evolutionary relationships within the Araucariaceae have been explored, mainly using genetic analysis (see Performance criterion 2.3). Further research into the embryology of the Wollemi Pine is required.
Performance criterion 10.2.6 Knowledge of species associated with the Wollemi Pine and its habitat is gained and this information is used in the management of the wild population (Action10.1).
The rainforest community of the Wollemi Pine was described in detail by Benson and Allen (2007).
The soil microbiota associated with the Wollemi Pine was described by Rigg et al. (2016a).
Performance criterion 10.2.7 Potential habitat is identified and field searched.
Potential habitat for Wollemi Pine has been modelled, based on environmental characteristics such as geology, climate, vegetation type and fire history. However, the highly remote and dissected nature of the Wollemi National Park landscape meant that there were limited on-ground data to inform these models, leading to uncertainty in the reliability of predicted habitat.
Extensive helicopter and ground surveys have been undertaken within Wollemi National Park, and no additional stands have been found.
Recovery objective 3: Establish, maintain and utilize representative ex situ populations
The living collection at ABGMA is a key component of the Wollemi Pine conservation program, providing important insurance against loss of genetic diversity in the wild population, and enabling a wide variety of ex situ research. However, like the wild population, a single, concentrated collection is highly vulnerable to stochastic events. Hence, propagation is ongoing to support the maintenance of a comprehensive backup in-ground collection at BMBGMT, and global distribution of a genetically diverse, dispersed living collection under the Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) metacollections program (Griffith et al., 2019) to further back-up and protect this vital resource.
Performance criterion 10.3.1 Material is available to allow: commercial propagation; dispersal to other conservation agencies, principally botanic gardens; establishment of a representative off-site collections at BGT; any potential future translocation; and scientific research.
A potted ex situ living collection has been established and maintained at ABGMA. Work is underway to create a comprehensive in-ground backup of this collection at BMBGMT, and a smaller collection is also maintained at the Botanic Gardens of Sydney BMBGMT. Material has been made available to support commercial propagation and distribution; dispersal to other conservation agencies (principally botanic gardens); three recent (2019, 2021 and 2024) translocations into Wollemi National Park (Mackenzie et al. 2021; Mackenzie et al. unpubl. data); and ongoing scientific research.
Performance criterion 10.3.2 Determination of the optimum conditions for seed germination and storage is achieved, providing a means of low-cost off-site conservation. This knowledge is used to inform management of the wild population.
Research has been undertaken into the optimum conditions for seed germination (Offord and Meagher 2001). Wollemi Pine seeds have been banked at the ABGMA PlantBank and research into optimum conditions for storage is ongoing. As more Wollemi Pine individuals in the BMBGMT in-ground collection reach maturity, they will provide the most genetically diverse source of seed available (given collocation of trees from all four wild stands), reducing the need to collect seed from the wild population.
Performance criterion 10.3.3 The optimum conditions for the cultivation of the Wollemi Pine are determined and knowledge gained is used to inform management of the wild population.
An extensive program of research into the propagation and horticulture of the Wollemi Pine has, in large part, been led by the RBGDT. The Wollemi Pine has been successfully germinated from seed (Offord & Meagher 2001), propagated from cuttings (Fensom & Offord 1998, Trueman & Peters 2006) and grown in cultivation (Offord et al. 1999; Offord 2011; Offord et al. 2014). Multiple studies have defined optimal conditions for Wollemi Pine growth in cultivation including:
Reproductive biology and ecology and early plant growth (Offord et al. 1999).
Temperature tolerances (Offord 2011).
Response to CO2 (Haworth et al. 2011).
Response to temperature and CO2 (Lewis et al. 2015).
Intolerance of drought (Zimmer et al. 2015b).
Wollemi Pine growth responses to soil pH and light (Offord et al. 2014).
Recovery objective 4: Develop a community relations strategy
Performance criterion 10.4.1 Community appreciation of and support for the conservation and protection of the Wollemi Pine is enhanced. This has been measured by surveys of audiences of Wollemi Pine presentations / lessons conducted by RBGDT Community Education, off site collections are planted and interpreted, Wollemi Pine website is maintained, exhibitions at field-days around Wollemi National Park are attended and educational information for general release is produced.
While there has been no formal survey of audiences at Wollemi Pine presentations, observations of researchers and Recovery Team members suggest that interest and support for the Wollemi Pine remains strong. During the 2019–20 bushfire season, the interest in the Wollemi Pines and potential impacts of the fires was intense, and this interest continued in the period after the fires. Citizen Science projects including ‘I Spy a Wollemi’ raised community awareness and support for the species both nationally and internationally
Ex situ collections have been planted at ABGMA and BMBGMT with associated interpretative material. The RBGDT Wollemi Pine webpages were updated in 2024 and remain important sources of information on the Wollemi Pine. NPWS also maintain several webpages dedicated to the Wollemi Pine conservation project, including a series of educational videos. Since the last recovery plan, there have been myriad TV news segments, newspaper and magazine articles, documentaries, radio interviews and podcasts on the Wollemi Pine.
Recovery objective 5: Support commercial production of Wollemi Pines for sale
Performance criterion 10.5.1 The known stands of Wollemi Pine are protected from damage caused by illegal visitation. Revenue from the commercialisation program is returned to the conservation of the Wollemi Pine.
A commercialisation strategy was developed to manage the release of the plants into cultivation. This strategy was launched in October 2005 at an international auction conducted by Sotherby’s at the BGOS. The strategy involved the development of a commercial release scheme that is sensitive to the conservation concerns of this and other Australian species, ensuring minimal material is collected from the wild, discouraging illegal collection, and communicating the importance of conservation. Upon commercial release of Wollemi Pine, messages regarding plant conservation were provided with packaging, printed, and web-based documentation, and other publicity efforts, in concert with the community relations strategy. Wollemi Pines continue to be sold commercially, although the Wollemi Pine Recovery Team and RBGDT have little control over the market because of the ability for suppliers and individuals to propagate their own Wollemi Pines.
Communication around the Wollemi Pine maintains robust messaging against illegal visitation. A proportion of the initial revenue from the commercialisation program was returned to the conservation of the Wollemi Pine. However, relationships with the commercial sector ceased in 2010 and royalties no longer contribute to conservation activities (B. Summerell, pers. comm.).